시리아의 복잡성과 다양성

권위주의 정부하의 시리아가 활기 차고 자유분방하게 보이는 것도 종교적, 인종적 다양성이 유지되고 있기 때문일 것이다.

趙甲濟

시리아 개황    시리아는 복잡하고 다양한 나라이다. 단일민족, 단일언어의 한국인들은 시리아에서 배울 점이 많을 것이다. 다양성에 대한 존중과 관용은 민주주의의 기초이니까. 권위주의 정부하의 시리아가 활기 차고 자유분방하게 보이는 것도 역사적 배경에서 유래한 인종적 종교적 다양성이 유지되고 있기 때문일 것이다.    시리아는 우선 5개국과 국경을 맞대고 있다. 이스라엘, 레바논, 요르단, 터키, 이라크. 공식언어는 아랍어이지만 아람어, 쿠르드어, 아르메니아어, 시르카시안어, 그리고 프랑스어가 쓰이고 있다.  인종구성도 복잡하다. 아랍인이 90%이지만 쿠르드족, 아르메니안 등 타민족이 약10%이다. 종교도 마찬가지이다. 순니파 이슬람 신도가 74%, 시아파, 알라위파, 두르제파 등이 15%, 기독교인이 10%, 유태교인도 있다.    시리아의 면적은 한반도보다 약간 작은 18만5180평방킬로미터이다. 국토의 약25%는 경작이 가능하다. 인구는 북한보다 약간 적은 1888만 명. 여기엔 이라크 난민 60만, 팔레스타인 난민 30만 명이 포함된다. 평균수명은 남자가 69세, 여자는 71.7세이다. 문맹률은 23%.    구매력기준으로 1인당 국민소득은 약4000달러이다. 연간 2.9% 경제성장률을 보이지만 실업률이 12.5%이다. 시리아를 여행해보니 할 일 없이 오가는 사람들이 너무 많았다. 외환보유고는 55억 달러. 최근 外貨를 유로貨로 바꾸고 있다. 시리아에서는 하루 40만 배럴의 기름이 나온다. 23만 배럴을 국내에서 소비하고 나머지는 수출한다. 시리아의 기름 소비량은 한국의 약10분의 1이다.    국민소득의 분포를 보면 농업과 석유가 거의 절반이다. 노동인구의 분포는 농업 26%, 공업 14%, 서비스업 60%이다. 70억 달러어치를 수출하고 66억 달러어치를 수입한다. 군사비 지출은 국민소득의 약6%이고 복무기한은 30개월. 인터넷 사용자는 110만 명, 휴대전화기가 약313만 대이다.    시리아의 가장 높은 산은 헤르몬산으로서 2814m이다. 겨울에는 다마스커스에서 눈발이 날릴 때도 있다. 인구는 거의가 지중해 연안에 몰려 산다.                  =========================================  Baath Party  From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  Jump to: navigation, search  This article or section does not adequately cite its references or sources.  Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. (help, get involved!)  Any material not supported by sources may be challenged and removed at any time. This article has been tagged since February 2007.  Arab Socialist Baath Party  حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي        Leader Bashar al-Assad    Founded April 7, 1947  Headquarters Damascus, Syria    Political ideology Nationalism, Arab socialism, Pan-Arabism  International affiliation none    Website www.baath-party.org    Party flagThe Arab Socialist Baath Party (also spelled Ba'th or Ba'ath; Arabic: حزب البعث العربي الاشتراكي Ḥizb al-Ba`ṯ al-`Arabī al-Ištirāki) was founded in 1947 as a radical, secular Arab nationalist political party. It functioned as a pan-Arab party with branches in different Arab countries (Yemen, Lebanon, Sudan), but was strongest in Syria and Iraq, coming to power in both countries in 1963. In 1966 the Syrian and Iraqi parties split into two rival organizations. Both Baath parties retained the same name, and maintain parallel structures in the Arab world.    The Baath Party came to power in Syria on 8 March 1963 and attained a monopoly of political power later that year. The Baathists ruled Iraq briefly in 1963, and then from July 1968 until 2003. After the overthrow of President Saddam Hussein's Baathist regime in the course of the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the occupying authorities banned the Iraqi Baath Party on May 16, 2003[1]. The Iraqi party has since then been associated with armed resistance to US, UK and cooperating Iraqi government forces. However, in a televised speech on January 10, 2007, US President George W. Bush told the American people that "to allow more Iraqis to re-enter their nation's political life, the government will reform de-Baathification laws - and establish a fair process for considering amendments to Iraq's constitution" [2].    The Arabic word Ba'th means "resurrection" or "renaissance" as in the party's founder Michel Aflaq's published works on The Way Of Resurrection". Baathist beliefs combine Arab Socialism, nationalism, and Pan-Arabism. The motto of the Party is "Unity, Freedom, Socialism". "Unity" refers to Arab unity, "freedom" emphasizes freedom from foreign control and interference in particular, and "socialism" refers to what has been termed Arab Socialism rather than to Marxism.    Contents [hide]  1 Origins  2 Foundation of the Arab Baath Party  3 The Baath in Syria, 1954 - 1963  4 The Baath takes power in Syria and Iraq, 1963  5 Ideological transformation and division, 1963 - 1966  6 Baathist power in Syria  6.1 The party outside Syria  7 The Iraq-based Baath Party  7.1 History  7.2 Structure  7.3 Post-Saddam Hussein  7.4 The party outside Iraq  8 References  9 External links        [edit] Origins  The Baath party originated with two separate nationalist groups in Syria. The first of these, initially known as harakat al-ihyaa al-'arabi (the Arab Resurrection Movement), was set up by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar in the 1940s. It was a relatively small group of intellectuals and students, and Aflaq was its main theoretician. His ideology was essentially a form of romantic nationalism coupled with a vague socialism which rejected, however, the idea of class struggle. The second group formed around Zaki al-Arsuzi, a prominent figure in the resistance to French plans to annex the Syrian province of Iskandarun to Turkey. Al-Arsuzi's conception of the Arab nation was essentially a linguistic one, and historian Hanna Batatu also charges him with racialism and a mystical tendency influenced by his Alawite religion. According to some sources, in 1940 Arsuzi founded a group known as al-Baath al-'arabi (the Arab Resurrection); in other sources, he only used this as the name of a bookshop he opened in Damascus. In any case, he seems to have been the first to adopt the name.    Al-Bitar and Aflaq were from middle-class Damascus families, the former a Sunni Muslim and the latter a Greek Orthodox Christian. Both had studied in Paris, coming under the influence of European nationalist and Marxist ideas, as well as the secular historicism of leading 19th century French thinkers such as Ernest Renan and Auguste Comte. The two men, along with al-Arsuzi and another major proponent of early Baathist ideology, Shakeeb Dallal, had careers as middle-class educators.    These groups had formed in opposition to both French colonial rule and to the older generation of Syrian Arab nationalists, and advocated instead Pan-Arab unity and Arab nationalism. Their ideology blended non-Marxist socialism and nationalism. The early Syrian Bathists opposed the influence of Europe in their country's affairs, and used nationalism and the notion of unifying the Arab world as a platform.      [edit] Foundation of the Arab Baath Party  In 1943, al-Arsuzi was deserted by most of his supporters, the bulk of whom, led by Wahib al-Ghanim, joined the Aflaq-al-Bitar group in 1945. The Arab Baath Party came into existence the same year, when its first central committee was formed. Aflaq and al-Bitar were its leaders. The party was officially established two years later at its first party congress, held in Damascus on April 7, 1947.    It remained a relatively small party, with a following essentially among intellectuals, until it merged with the Arab Socialist Party of Akram al-Hawrani in 1952. The party's name was changed to the Arab Socialist Baath Party, while the constitution and rules of Aflaq and al-Bitar's party were adopted unchanged. A new national command was elected, composed of Aflaq, al-Bitar, al-Hawrani, and Antun Maqdisi, a supporter of al-Hawrani. In 1954 the second party congress ratified the merger.    Al-Hawrani was a popular figure known for his campaigns against the feudal landlordism prevalent in Hama province and his participation in the Rashid Ali movement in Iraq and resistance to Zionism in Palestine. His support gave the Baath both a wider popular base and a foothold in the officer corps of the Syrian military. However, this was at best a mixed blessing: Batatu records that many of his followers retained a personal loyalty to him rather than becoming committed party men.    The Baath claimed to speak for the entire Arab nation and in the course of the 1950s its influence spread to other Arab countries, with branches forming in Iraq, Jordan, and Lebanon. It was soon to play a prominent role in the turbulent politics of both Syria and Iraq in the 1950s and 1960s, a role that by the end of the 1960s would lead it to power in both countries but also ultimately to its transformation from a competitive, ideological political party into an instrument of rule in one-party regimes in both countries.      [edit] The Baath in Syria, 1954 - 1963  Syrian politics took a dramatic turn in 1954 when the military regime of Adib al-Shishakli was overthrown and a democratic system restored. The Baath, now a large and popular organisation, gained representation in the parliamentary elections that year. Ideologically-based organisations appealing to the intelligentsia, the petty bourgeoisie and the working class were gaining ground in Syria, threatening to displace the old parties that represented the notables and bourgeoisie. The Baath was one of these new formations, but faced considerable competition from ideological enemies, notably the Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP), which was intrinsically opposed to Arab nationalism and was seen as pro-Western, and the Syrian Communist Party (SCP), whose support for class struggle and internationalism was also anathema to the Baath. In addition to the parliamentary level, all these parties as well as Islamists competed in street-level activity and sought to recruit support among the military.    The assassination of Baathist colonel Adnan al-Malki by a member of the SSNP allowed the Baath and its allies to launch a crackdown on that party, thus eliminating one rival, but by the late 1950s the Baath itself was facing considerable problems, driven by factionalism and faced with ideological confusion among its base. The growth of the Communist Party was also a major threat. These considerations undoubtedly contributed to the party's decision to support unification with Nasser's Egypt in 1958, an extremely popular position in any case. In 1958 Syria merged with Egypt in the United Arab Republic. As political parties other than Nasser's Arab Socialist Union were not permitted to operate, the Baath along with Syria's other parties faced the choice of dissolution or suppression.    In August 1959 the Baath Party held a congress which, in line with Aflaq's views, approved of its liquidation into the Arab Socialist Union. This decision was not universally accepted in party ranks, however, and the following year a fourth party congress was convened which reversed it.    Meanwhile, a small group of Syrian Baathist officers stationed in Egypt were observing with alarm the party's poor position and the increasing fragility of the union. They decided to form a secret military committee: its initial members were Lieutenant-Colonel Muhammad 'Umran, majors Salah Jadid and Ahmad al-Mir, and captains Hafez al-Assad and 'Abd al-Karim al-Jundi    The merger was not a happy experience for Syria, and in 1961 a military coup in Damascus brought it to an end. Sixteen prominent politicians signed a statement supporting the coup, among them al-Hurani and al-Bitar (although the latter soon retracted his signature). The party was in crisis: the secession was extremely controversial among Syrians in general and most unpopular among the radical nationalists who formed the Baath membership. A large section of the membership left in protest, setting up the Socialist Unity Vanguard and gaining considerable support. The leadership around Aflaq was bitterly contested for its timidity in opposing the separation. Al-Hawrani, now a determined opponent of reunification, left the Baath and re-established his Arab Socialist Party.    Aflaq sought to reactivate the splintered party by calling a Fifth National Congress held in Homs in May 1962, from which both al-Hawrani's supporters and the Socialist Unity Vanguard were excluded. A compromise was reached between the pro-Nasser elements and the more cautious leadership. The leadership line was reflected in the position the congress adopted in favour of "considered unity" as opposed to the demands for "immediate unity" launched by the Socialist Unity Vanguard (later the Socialist Unity Movement), the Nasserists and the Arab Nationalist Movement. Meanwhile the Syrian party's secret Military Committee was also planning how to take power, having been granted considerable freedom of action by the civilian leadership in recognition of its need for secrecy.      [edit] The Baath takes power in Syria and Iraq, 1963  On February 8 1963, the Iraqi Baath took power after bloodily overthrowing Abd al-Karim Qasim and quashing communist-led resistance.    That same year, the Syrian party's military committee succeeded in persuading Nasserist and independent officers to make common cause with it, and they successfully carried out a military coup on 8 March. A National Revolutionary Command Council took control and assigned itself legislative power; it appointed Salah al-Din al-Bitar as head of a "national front" government. The Baath participated in this government along with the Arab Nationalist Movement, the United Arab Front and the Socialist Unity Movement.    As historian Hanna Batatu notes, this took place without the fundamental disagreement over immediate or "considered" reunification having been resolved. The Baath moved to consolidate its power within the new regime, purging Nasserist officers in April. Subsequent disturbances led to the fall of the al-Bitar government, and in the aftermath of Jasim Alwan's failed Nasserist coup in July, the Baath monopolised power.      [edit] Ideological transformation and division, 1963 - 1966  The challenges of building a Baathist state led to considerable ideological discussion and internal struggle in the party. The Iraqi party was increasingly dominated by Ali Salih al-Sa'di, an unsophisticated thinker according to Batatu, who took a hardline leftist approach, declaring himself a Marxist. He gained support in this from Syrian regional secretary Mahmud al-Shufi and from Yasin al-Hafiz, one of the party's few ideological theorists. Some members of the secret military committee also sympathised with this line.    The far-left tendency gained control at the party's Sixth National Congress of 1963, where hardliners from the dominant Syrian and Iraqi regional parties joined forces to impose a hard left line, calling for "socialist planning", "collective farms run by peasants", "workers' democratic control of the means of production", a party based on workers and peasants, and other demands reflecting a certain emulation of Soviet-style socialism. In a coded attack on Aflaq, the congress also condemned "ideological notability" within the party (Batatu, p. 1020). Aflaq, bitterly angry at this transformation of his party, retained a nominal leadership role, but the National Command as a whole came under the control of the radicals.    The volte-face was received with anger by elements in the Iraqi party, which suffered considerable internal division. The Nationalist Guard, a paramilitary unit which had been extremely effective, and extremely brutal, in suppressing opposition to the new regime, supported al-Sa'di, as did the Baathist Federation of Students, the Union of Workers, and the bulk of the membership. Most party members among the military officer corps were opposed, as was President Abd al-Salam 'Arif. Coup and counter-coup ensued within the party, whose factions did not shrink from employing the military in settling their internal differences. This eventually allowed 'Arif to take control and eliminate Baathist power in Iraq for the time being.      [edit] Baathist power in Syria  Syria      This article is part of the series:  Politics and government of  Syria      --------------------------------------------------------------------------------    Constitution  President  Bashar al-Assad  Prime Minister  Muhammad Naji Etri  People's Council  Political parties  Baath Party  Elections:  2007 pres.  2007 parl.  Governorates  Human rights  Foreign relations  Foreign aid      --------------------------------------------------------------------------------  Other countries · Politics Portal    view • talk • edit  From 1963, the Baath functioned as the only legal Syrian political party, but factionalism and splintering within the party led to a succession of governments and new constitutions. on 23 February 1966 a military junta led by Salah Jadid took power, and set out on a more radical line. Although they had not been supporters of the victorious far-left line at the Sixth Party Congress, they had now moved to adopt its positions and displaced the more moderate wing in power, purging from the party its original founders, Aflaq and al-Bitar.    At this juncture the Syrian Baath party split into two factions: the "progressive" faction, led by Nureddin al-Atassi, which gave priority to neo-Marxist economic reform, and the so-called nationalist group, led by Hafez al-Assad. Assad was unenthusiastic about the radical and increasingly unpopular socialist line the Baath was pursuing. He also favoured a more cautious approach in external affairs: he viewed a reconciliation with the conservative Arab states, notably Saudi Arabia, as essential for Syria's strategic position. Despite constant maneuvering and government changes, the two factions remained in an uneasy coalition of power until 1970, when, in another coup, Assad succeeded in ousting Atassi as prime minister. The Baath Party in Syria became virtually indistinguishable from the state, with membership numbers well over one million reflecting the fact that party membership was vital to advancement in many sectors. Other socialist parties accepting the basic orientation of the regime were permitted to operate again, and in 1973 the National Progressive Front was established as a coalition of the legal parties; the Baath remained firmly in control. Meanwhile, supporters of the far-left line formed the Democratic Arab Socialist Baath Party, which remains in existence to this day as an illegal opposition party in Syria and in exile.    The Syrian Baath and the Iraqi Baath were by now two separate parties, each maintaining that it was the genuine party and electing a National Command to take charge of the party across the Arab world. However, in Syria the Regional Command was the real centre of party power, and the membership of the National Command was a largely honorary position, often the destination of figures being eased out of the leadership.    Assad, one of the longest-ruling leaders of the modern Middle East, remained at Syria's political helm until his death in 2000, when his son Bashar al Assad succeeded him as President and as Regional Secretary of the party.    The Baath holds 135 of the 250 seats in the Syrian parliament, a figure which is dictated by election regulations rather than by voting patterns.      [edit] The party outside Syria  The Syria-based Baath Party has branches in Lebanon, Yemen, Jordan, Sudan, Iraq (currently split into two factions), etc., although none of the non-Syrian branches have any major strength. Among the Palestinians, as-Sa'iqa, a member organization of the Palestine Liberation Organisation, is the Syrian Baath party branch.    In Lebanon the party is led by Assem Qanso, a Shiite worker of Kurdish descent.      [edit] The Iraq-based Baath Party    Saddam Hussein with Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr in the 1970s  Baath Party membership cardIraqi and Syrian Baathism today differ widely and partially oppose each other, though they only split a short time after their creation. They share one common feature in that under Saddam Hussein Iraq also moved away from Baathist principles.      [edit] History  In Iraq the Baath party remained a civilian group and lacked strong support within the military. The party had little impact, and the movement split into several factions after 1958 and again in 1966. It lacked strong popular support, but through the construction of a strong party apparatus the party succeeded in gaining power.    The Baathists first came to power in the coup of February, 1963, when Abd al-Salam 'Arif became president. Interference from the historic leadership around Aflaq and disputes between the moderates and extremists, culminating in an attempted coup by the latter in November, 1963, served to discredit the party. After Arif's takeover in November 1963, the moderate military Baathist officers initially retained some influence but were gradually eased out of power over the following months.    In July, 1968, a bloodless coup brought to power the Baathist general Ahmad Hassan al-Bakr. Wranglings within the party continued, and the government periodically purged its dissident members. Emerging as a party strongman, Saddam Hussein eventually used his growing power to push al-Bakr aside in 1979 and ruled Iraq until 2003. Although almost all the Baathist leadership had no military background, under Hussein the party changed dramatically and became heavily militarized, with its leading members frequently appearing in uniform.      [edit] Structure  The Party cell or circle, composed of three to seven members, constitutes the basic organisational unit of the Iraqi Baath Party. Cells functioned at the neighborhood or village level, where members would meet to discuss and execute party directives introduced from above. Since individual cells had little contact with one another, those higher up could vigorously enforce party loyalties from the top down. As the U.S. and its allies discovered in Iraq in 2003, cell organization also made the Party highly resilient.    A Party division comprised two to seven cells, controlled by a division commander. Such Baathist cells occurred throughout the bureaucracy and the military, where they functioned as the Party's watchdog, an effective form of covert surveillance within a public administration.    A Party section, which comprised two to five divisions, functioned at the level of a large city quarter, a town, or a rural district.    The branch came above the sections; it comprised at least two sections, and operated at the provincial level.    The Party congress, which combined all the branches, elected the regional command as the core of the Party leadership and top decision-making mechanism.    The national command of the Baath Party ranked over the regional command. It formed the highest policy-making and coordinating council for the Baath movement throughout the Arab world at large.      [edit] Post-Saddam Hussein    Fedayeen Saddam, irregular soldiers loyal to the former Iraqi Ba'athist regime.In June 2003, the U.S.-led multinational occupying forces in Iraq banned the Baath party. Some criticize the additional step the CPA took — of banning all members of the Baath party from the new government, as well as from public schools and colleges — as blocking too many skilled people from participation in the new government. Several teachers have lost their jobs, causing protests and demonstrations at schools and universities. Under the previous rule of the Baath party, one could not reach high positions in the government or in the schools without becoming a party member.    Many members and supporters of the former Baath Party are alleged to be involved in the Iraqi insurgency. They are most active and draw most of their support from within the Sunni Triangle. However after the capture of Saddam Hussein most Baathist groups have started to take up a more Islamist character in a bid to increase their support.    In October 2006, President George W. Bush of the United States delivered a speech in which he affirmed that the U.S. had helped the Iraq government form plans to "resolve the most difficult issues dividing their country." Among other things, he stated that the Iraq government will seek to reform the "de-Baathification process." [3]    Following the capture of Saddam Hussein, Deputy Leader of the Party and former Vice President of Iraq Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri had assumed control of the Baath Party's activities, following the execution of Saddam Hussein on 30 December 2006 a statement issued in Amman in Jordan outside Iraqi Baath Party HQ in Jordan by a group calling itself the Baghdad Citizens Gathering announced that Izzat Ibrahim ad-Douri was the new leader of the Baath Party, on 3 January 2007 this was confirmed on the website of the Iraqi Baath Party.[1]      [edit] The party outside Iraq  The Iraq-based Baath Party had branches in various Arab countries, such as Lebanon, Mauritania and Jordan. After the fall of the Saddam government, many branches have distanced themselves from the central party, such as the branches in Yemen and Sudan.    In Lebanon, the party is led by Liberal Sunni MP for Tripoli Abdul-Majeed Al-Rafei and Nicola Y. Firzli, Beirut-based real estate entrepreneur and scion of a prominent Greek Orthodox Christian family that fought against Ottoman Turkish rule in the Middle East.    The party works amongst the Palestinians through the Arab Liberation Front (Jabhat al-Tahrir al-'Arabiyah). ALF formed the major Palestinian political faction in Iraq during the Saddam years. It is numerically small, but gained some prominence due to the support given to it by the Iraqi government. It is a member organization of PLO.    In Bahrain, Rasul al-Jishi leads the local faction of the Baath Party, the Nationalist Democratic Rally Society (Jami'at al-Tajammu' al-Qawmi al-Dimuqrati), which in an alliance with radical Islamists opposes the Bahrain government.    An Iraq-oriented Baath Party branch formerly existed in Syria, which the Syrian government severely repressed. It was led by former Sunni president Amin al-Hafez who returned to Aleppo in 2003, after having lived in exile in Iraq for more than three decades.    ----------------------------------------------------------------          Ghazi Kanaan  From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  Jump to: navigation, search  Ghazi Kanaan (1942 – 12 October 2005) (Arabic: غازي كنعان; transliterations vary) was Syria's Interior Minister from 2004 to 2005, and long-time head of Syria's security apparatus in Lebanon. His violent death during an investigation into the assassination of Rafik al-Hariri drew international attention.    Contents [hide]  1 Background  2 Death in October 2005  3 Theories on Kanaan's death and possible involvement in the Hariri bombing  4 See also  5 External links        [edit] Background  Ghazi Kanaan was born in 1942 in Bhamra, near Qardaha, the home town of former Syrian president Hafiz al-Asad. This region, centered on the coastal town of Lattakia, is in heartland Syria's Alawite minority, of which both men were part. He entered the military and commanded a tank battalion against Israeli forces in the 1973 October War.    As a result of his success and extreme intelligence,He advanced quickly through the ranks of the military, and was given the post of director of intelligence in of Central SyriaHoms. In 1982, after the Israeli invasion of Lebanon, parts of which were already under Syrian military domination, he was assigned to head the Syrian intelligence there. He remained the head of Syrian security in the country for 20 years, effectively ruling his Lebanese proxies through a web of agents and loyalist bureaucrats, backed by the Syrian military presence. During this time, he gained a decisive Syrian influence over Lebanese affairs, and gradually subdued the warring Lebanese militias through a combination of diplomacy, bribery and force. After Israel's withdrawal from its occupation of southern Lebanon in 2000, Kanaan extended Syria's influence there, and backed the Hezbollah movement's takeover of the area.    After being an early backer of Syrian president Bashar al-Asad as a successor to his father, Kanaan was in 2002 summoned back to Damascus to become the head of Syria's political intelligence, which was viewd by the eyes of many as a "demotion". He was succeeded in Lebanon by Rustum Ghazali. In 2004, after a string of bombings targeting leading Hamas members given sanctuary in Syria, claimed by Syria to have been the work of Israeli intelligence, Kanaan was assigned by president Assad to the cabinet post of interior minister, another "demotion" where he could be fired anytime as by a cabinet reshuffle. on the internal Syrian political scene, Kanaan was considered close to the president, although at the same time part of the "old guard" of Syrian politics.    On June 30th 2005, the United States, which had been pressuring Syria over the Hariri bombing and to end Syrian occupation, declared that it would freeze all assets belonging to Kanaan and Ghazali, due to their involvement with the occupation of Lebanon, and also due to suspicions of "corrupt activities".      [edit] Death in October 2005  Kanaan died in his office, by a gunshot through the mouth, in Damascus on October 12 2005. After a one-day examination, Syrian authorities closed the case, Prosecutor Muhammad al-Luaji stating:    "Examination of the body and fingerprints as well as testimony from employees, including senior aide General Walid Abaza, indicated that it was a suicide by gunshot"    It has been suggested he was in fact murdered by the Syrian government, and various theories explaining the possible motives for this have been put forth. Lebanese Druze leader Walid Jumblatt, who had been variously allied and hostile to Kanaan during his stay in Lebanon, commented by saying that if Ghazi Kanaan was in fact linked to the Hariri assassination, then he was a "brave man" who "did well, if I may say, by committing suicide".    Kanaan was interviewed in September of 2005 by a United Nations team, as a "witness", probing the February 14 assassination of former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik al-Hariri. Chief United Nations investigator Detlev Mehlis is expected to submit his report to Secretary-General Kofi Annan on October 21. Kanaan however denied any involvement in the assassination, for example in the phone interview he gave to the Lebanese broadcasting station Voice of Lebanon on the day of his death. In that interview he said "I think this is the last statement I might give".      [edit] Theories on Kanaan's death and possible involvement in the Hariri bombing  Ali Sadr el-Din Bayanouni, the London-based leader of the banned Syrian branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, told Al Jazeera that Kanaan, "indicated that he felt in danger, and this supports rumors that there has been a deal in which the Syrian regime might sacrifice some of its heads for saving the regime."    It has been reported that Kanaan opposed Assad's decision in 2004 to extend the term of the pro-Syrian Lebanese President Emile Lahoud, siding with then-prime minister Rafik al-Hariri whom he is reported to have had a good relationship with. The term extension provoked the creation of a Lebanese nationalists' camp, whose anti-Syrian protests gained momentum after the murder of al-Hariri in 2005. It was seen as a strategic blunder by many supporters of the Syrian occupation, and is believed to have weakened the president's position. It has been suggested that Kanaan may have been part of such opposition to Assad's rule. Most sources however indicate that he kept the president's trust, and his appointment to interior minister after allegedly having opposed the term extension in 2004 seems to bolster this claim.    Zvi Bar'el in the Israeli newspaper Ha'aretz has presented a theory involving Bashar al-Assad's brother Maher and other conspirators within the regime wanting to get rid of Kanaan, whom they viewed as too powerful and too close to the president. This could also involve a plot to eventually get rid of Bashar himself, possibly connected to Hafez al-Assad's exiled brother Rifaat al-Assad. While this is only speculation, the article (linked below) presumes that the Mehlis report will not only shed light on the Hariri killing, but also on the internal intrigues of the Syrian ruling elite.    =============================================  Syria  From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  Jump to: navigation, search  This article is about the modern nation of Syria. For other uses, see Syria (disambiguation).  الجمهورية العربية السورية  Al-Jumhūriyyah al-ʿArabiyyah as-Sūriyyah  Syrian Arab Republic    Flag Coat of arms    Anthem  Homat el Diyar  Guardians of the Homeland    Capital  (and largest city) Damascus  33°30′N, 36°18′E  Official languages Arabic  Government Presidential republic   - President Bashar al-Assad   - Prime Minister Muhammad Naji Etri  Independence from France   - First declaration September 19361   - Second declaration January 1, 1944   - Recognized April 17, 1946  Area   - Total 183,885 km² (88th)  71,479 sq mi   - Water (%) 0.06  Population   - July 2005 estimate 19,043,000 (55th)   - Density 103 /km² (96th)  267 /sq mi  GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate   - Total $71.74 billion (65th)   - Per capita $5,348 (101st)  HDI (2004) 0.716 (medium) (107th)  Currency Syrian pound (SYP)  Time zone EET (UTC+2)   - Summer (DST) EEST (UTC+3)  Internet TLD .sy  Calling code +963  1 The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by France.  Syria (Arabic: سوريا ‎or سورية Sūriya), officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic: الجمهورية العربية السورية ), is a country in the Middle East, bordering Lebanon to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north. The modern state of Syria attained independence from the French mandate of Syria in 1946, but can trace its roots to the fourth millennium BC; its capital city, Damascus, was the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire.    Syria has a population of 19 million. The majority are Arabic-speaking Sunni Muslims, as well as 16% other Muslim groups, including the Alawi and Shi'a. There is also a 10% Christian minority and a significant Druze community. Since 1963 the country has been governed by the Baath Party; the head of state since 1970 has been a member of the Assad family. Syria's current President is Bashar al-Assad, son of Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000.    Historically, Syria has often included the territories of Lebanon, Historical Palestine, and parts of Jordan, but excluded the Jazira region in the north-east of the modern Syrian state. In this historic sense, the region is also known as Greater Syria or by the Arabic name Bilad al-Sham (بلاد الشام). Since the Six-Day War in 1967, Israel administers Golan Heights to the southwest of the country; a dispute with Turkey over the Hatay Province has subsided.    Contents [hide]  1 Etymology  2 History  2.1 Ancient Syria  2.2 Islamic Era  2.3 French mandate  2.4 Independence  2.4.1 Syrian army’s role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War  2.5 Military coups  2.5.1 Years of influence and presidency of Shishakli  2.6 Civilian rule: 1954–1958  2.7 United Arab Republic  2.8 Post- union Regime  2.9 Baath takeover  2.10 1970–2000  2.10.1 Consolidation of power  2.10.2 Yom Kippur War  2.10.3 Involvement in Lebanon  2.10.4 Opposition and repression  2.10.5 Relations with Iran  2.10.6 Gulf War  2.10.7 Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad  2.11 2000–2004  2.12 Events since 2004  3 Administrative divisions  3.1 Major cities  3.2 Minor cities  3.3 Towns  3.4 Villages  4 Politics  4.1 Government  4.2 Human rights  5 Geography  6 Economy  7 Demographics  7.1 Ethnic groups  7.2 Religion  7.3 Languages  8 Culture  8.1 Holidays  8.2 Fairs and festivals  9 Miscellaneous topics  10 References and footnotes  11 External links        [edit] Etymology  The name Syria comes from the ancient Greek name for the former colonial territories of Assyria such as Canaan and Aram. At the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including from west to east Commagene, Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria" (N.H. 5.66). By Pliny's time, however, this larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but politically independent from each other): Judaea (or "Judea" and later renamed Palestina in AD 135—the region corresponding to the modern states of Israel and Jordan and the Palestinian territories) in the extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and Mesopotamia.      [edit] History  The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article History of Syria.    (See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)   This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.  You can assist by editing it now. A how-to guide is available, as is general documentation.  This article has been tagged since February 2007.    Map of SyriaMain article: History of Syria    [edit] Ancient Syria  Syrian civilization dates back to at least the fourth millennium BC. Many sites in Syria evoke the beginnings of recorded human history.    Archaeologists have demonstrated that Syria was the centre of one of the most ancient civilizations on Earth. Around the excavated city of Ebla in north-eastern Syria, discovered in 1975, a great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia from 2500 to 2400 BC. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be the oldest recorded Semitic language. At Ebla (Tel Merdikh), a royal palace was discovered containing one of the largest and most comprehensive archives of the ancient world. Ebla's archive consists of more than 17,000 clay tablets dealing with matters of industry, diplomacy, trade, art and agriculture. Ebla became world-famous for two industries: the manufacture of finely carved wood, inlaid with ivory and mother of pearls; and of silk cloth of gold. Today these industries still prosper, with Syrian brocade and mosaics fashioned according to the artisan tradition of ancient Ebla.      Phillippus Araps(Roman Emperor) -detail of syrian 100 pounds  Clay tablet from Ebla's archive.Other notable cities excavated include Mari, Ugarit and Dura Europos. At Mari (Tel Hariri) numerous palaces, temples and murals were found that reflect advanced cultural and commercial activity. The kingdom of Ugarit (Ras Shamra) offered humankind its first alphabet.    Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites, Hebrews, Arameans, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Armenians, Romans, Nabataeans, Byzantines, Arabs, and, in part, Crusaders before finally coming under the control of the Ottoman Turks. Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; according to the Bible, Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus and joined the first organized Christian Church in Antioch in ancient Syria (now in Turkey), from which he left on many of his missionary journeys.      [edit] Islamic Era  History of the Levant  Stone Age  Kebaran · Natufian culture ·  Halafian culture · Jericho      Ancient History  Sumerians · Ebla · Akkadian Empire ·  Canaan · Phoenicians  Amorites · Aramaeans · Edomites · Hittites  Nabataeans · Philistines ·Israel and Judah  Assyrian Empire · Babylonian Empire  Persian Empire · Seleucid Empire ·  Hasmonean kingdom  Roman Empire · Byzantine Empire      The Middle Ages  Ummayad · Abassid  Seljuk · Fatimid  Crusades · Ayyubid · Mamluks  Ottoman Empire · Greater Syria      Modern Times  British Mandate  Jordan · Israel  Palestinian territories  Syria · Lebanon        This box: view • talk • edit  Damascus, a city that has been inhabited as early as 3,000 BC, is known to be one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It came under Muslim rule in AD 636. Immediately thereafter, the city's power and prestige reached its peak, and it became the capital of the Umayyad Empire, which extended from Spain to the borders of Central Asia from AD 661 to AD 750. Syria acted as cultural hub that took in influences from many sources and sent them out to other parts of the empire and Damascus achieved a glory unrivalled among cities of the eighth century. The Umayyads were overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in AD 750, and the seat of the Abbasid caliphate was established at Baghdad, Iraq.    Damascus became a provincial capital of the Mameluke Empire around 1260. It was largely destroyed in 1400 by Tamerlane, the Mongol conqueror, who removed many of its craftsmen to Samarkand. Rebuilt, it continued to serve as a capital until 1516. In 1517, it fell under Ottoman rule. The Ottomans remained for the next four hundred years, except for a brief occupation by Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt from 1832 to 1840.      [edit] French mandate  The following text needs to be harmonized with text in the article French Mandate of Syria.    (See e.g. Wikipedia:Summary style.)   This article or section needs copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone and/or spelling.  You can assist by editing it now. A how-to guide is available, as is general documentation.  This article has been tagged since February 2007.    The National Bloc signing the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in Paris in 1936. From left to right: Saadallah al-Jabiri, Jamil Mardam Bey, Hashim al-Atassi (signing), and French Prime Minister Léon Blum.The Arabs participated in the revolt of Hussein bin Ali against the Ottomans, and in alliance with the British, captured Damascus and other Syrian cities. Faysal, son of Hussein, grand sheriff of Mecca, formed a national government in 1918 in Damascus, which controlled some areas from what was known as greater Syria. (These areas consisted of present day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Israel.)The Majlis al–Shoura (Advisory counsel) was formed to represent the legislative branch of the government. Faysal appointed Rida al-Rikabi as the first Prime Minister of modern Syria, who then formed modern Syria's first cabinet. The Istiqlal party (party of independence) was formed in February 6, 1919 as the successor of Jam'iyat al-Arabiyah al-Fatat, as the first post-Ottoman Syrian party, and with the leadership of Shukri al-Quwatli, Saadalla al-Jabiri, and Riad al-Sulh. (Similarly, the Azm party was formed as the successor of the Azm movement.) General elections were held in 1919, and the first Parliament was formed under the name of the Syrian national congress, with Hashim al-Atassi as the speaker of parliament. Prince Zayed became prime minister in January until Rida al-Rikabi was reappointed as Prime Minister in March. on March, 8, 1920, the Syrian national congress elected and crowned Prince Faysal as the king of Syria. Faysal appointed Hashim al-Atassi as Prime Minister in May, and asked him to appoint the cabinet. Faysal also declared Syria a free and independent kingdom and appointed a 20-member committee, headed by Atassi, to draw up a constitution. The constitution adapted a new flag and declared the federal and Parliamentary systems as well as the constitutes of the Syrian kingdom, which consisted of the four autonomous territories of Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and Palestine. Each territory would have high autonomy with a governor-general appointed by the monarch, a chamber of deputies, and a local government. According to the constitution, the monarch and Prime Minister represented the executive branch and the Syrian national congress, consisting of the elected members of the chamber of deputies and the half-elected, half-appointed members of the senate, represented the legislative branch. The congress began to reconstruct the state, reopening schools, universities, and other educational institutions and building new facilities, most notably the Syrian university in Damascus (1923), and the Arab Academy (1919) in Damascus. It declared Arabic the official language and consequently translated school texts into Arabic.    Under the terms of the secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between Britain and France, France was granted a mandate over Syria by the League of Nations.    In 1920, the French army attacked Damascus and crushed the Syrian resistance led by the Minster of war in Atassi’s government, Yusuf al-Azmeh, in the Battle of Maysalun. The Syrian national congress and the kingdom were dissolved; Faysal was forced to flee to Palestine then Italy. Syria was thereby governed by France directly under the high commissioner.    In late 1921 and early 1922, French authorities divided Syria into six states: Aleppo, Damascus, Jabal el Druze, the Alawite State, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun (state of Alexandretta). Autonomy status was granted in Jabal al Druze, Lebanon, and Sanjak Iskenderoun. By the Franco-Turkish agreement of Ankara (1921), France decided to give the state of Alexandretta a special administration, where it was governed under mandate authorities, the autonomous government, and the government of Turkey. Separation from Syria in 1939 was the second Franco-Turkish action toward this state.    Many nationalists revolted against the French authorities including Saleh al-Ali in the Alawi state (1919-1921), Ibrahim Hanano in Aleppo (1920-1921), Ramadan Shlash in eastern Syria (1919–1921), andSultan Pasha al-Atrash in Jabal Druze (1925 – 1926). Other revolts included that of Lebanon, the revolt for Damascus and its rural areas (1925–1927) lead by Damascus notables, and the revolt for Hama (1919–1929). However, the French managed to quell all the revolutions throughout Syria. The Druze revolt and the Damascus revolt were collectively known as the Great Syrian revolution because they were the best organized revolts in Syria. Damascus revolutionaries both took and captured Damascus in 1925 except for the Meza area and the Damascus citadel, where the French army centered and heavily bombed the city by artillery and aircraft. The remaining revolutionaries in the city surrendered to the French and bombing was stopped. Many parts of the city were destroyed as a result of the bombing, which lasted 48 hours. The last battles of Damascus’s rural area in 1927 marked the end of the Great Syrian revolution. As a result of the massive number of revolts against them, French authorities amended their plans in Syria; the Aleppo and Damascus states merged to form "The State of Syria" with the Alawite and Jabal Druze states remaining separate. The state of Lebanon officially separated from Syria in 1926 as the Lebanese republic under French mandate. A number of political parties were formed including the People’s party (1925) and the Communist party of Syria and Lebanon (1924, renamed as the Syrian Communist Party in 1944). The Istiqlal party, and other nationalist groups and parties merged to form a coalition national alliance called the National Bloc, headed by Hashim al-Atassi, which called for an independent Syria, and said that independence should be granted by diplomatic talks with France rather than armed resistance. A 67-seated constituent assembly was formed in 1928 to draw up Syria’s first republican constitution, and the national bloc leader, Hashim al-Atassi, became speaker of the constituent assembly. The assembly approved a constitution in 1930, with the French high commissioner refusing articles that gave the Syrian government power more than the French authorities. The high commissioner instead adapted the “116 article,” which gave French authorities even greater power. At the same time, the constitutions of Jabal al-Druze, the Alawite state, and Alexanderetta were adapted.    In 1932, the Syrian republic was declared, and a Parliament was formed under the name of the chamber of deputies, with Subhi Barrakat as the speaker of the Parliament. Muhammad Abid became the president of Syria, and appointed the pro-French politician Haqqi al-Azm as Prime Minister. (Abid appointed a new Prime Minister in 1934, Taj al-Din al-Hasani, who created a pro-French cabinet.) Members of the national bloc and many Syrian nationalists stood against Abid’s regime, and called for a 60-day strike in February of 1936. France, in defeat, called the national bloc leaders in March, including Hashim al-Atassi, to negotiate a treaty with the French leaders in Paris to provide a gradual and substantial Syrian independence. The Syrian officials signed what is known as the Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence in September, and came back to Syria within a month. The treaty called for the unification of Syria, and thus Jabal al-Druze and the Alawi state were joined with the Syrian republic. The treaty provided more powers for the offices of President and Parliament, and, most significantly, gave Syria gradual independence over 25 years, after which Syria would gain full independence. During the previous months, 'Ata Bay al-Ayyubi, replaced Haqqi al-Azm as Prime Minister and declared the end of 60-day strike, dissolved the al-Hassani pro-French cabinet, and appointed a new coalition counsel of ministers. A new parliament was elected in 1936, with Hashim al-Atassi elected as president. France began assisting Syria by building schools, roads, and hospitals, but in 1939 annulled and refused the Franco-Syrian treaty of independence. Jabal al-Druze and the Alawi state were again separated from Syria. The newly-established presidential and Parliamentary authorities were abolished. Hashim al-Atassi resigned from presidency and France ceded to Turkey the state of Alexandretta (sanjak Iskenderoun) in 1939.    The French dissolved the Syrian Parliament in 1939 due to the outbreak of World War II. As the chairman of the high commissioners, Bahij al-Khatib headed the state and government.    After the surrender of France to Germany in 1940, Syria came under the control of the Vichy government. British and free French forces invaded Syria in 1941. Later in the same year, free French authorities asked Khatib to resign. General Charles de Gaulle visited Syria in October 1941 and asked Hashim al-Atassi to resume his duty as president, but Atassi refused to do so. De Gaulle then asked Taj al-din al-Hassani to rule as president without Parliament until elections were to be held after the end of World War II, who accepted. on January, 17, 1943, Taj al-din al-Hassani died in office, however, a new government and constitution were formed in the same year. During the elections of 1943, a new Parliament was created. Shukri al-Quwatli, a Syrian nationalist, one of the leaders of the 1925-1927 uprising against the French, and a member of the national bloc, was elected as president of the Syrian republic. The 1943 constitution declared the "Syrian republic" the official name of the country, stated the Parliamentary system, and provided the freedom of religion. The constitution also provided a 120-seat chamber of deputies, which represented the Parliamentary and legislative branch. The president, who would serve a 5-year term, and would not be re-elected until its completion, represented the executive branch along with the Prime Minister and cabinet.    In 1944, French and Syrian leaders signed an independence treaty, the Jabal Druze and the Alwai state given back to the Syrian republic. Despite this, free French troops surrounded Damascus in 1945 and bombed it, only twenty years after the first raid. As a result, the Parliament building and the Damascus citadel were destroyed. Many civilian neighborhoods were severely damaged, with over 2000 civilian casualties.    In 1946, the independence treaty of 1944 was recognized and free French and British troops left Syria, the last leaving April 15, 1946. Independence was declared on April 17, which was made an official national holiday commemorated each year as the Jalaa Day (Independence Day).      [edit] Independence    Shukri al Quwatli, Syria's first post-independence President.In 1946 Syria was declared as an independent republic, with "Syrian Republic" as its official name (later; Syrian Arab Republic), and with presidency of Shukri al-Quwatli. Parliament was rebuilt in 1947, and under elections a new chamber of deputies was formed, as the first parliament after independence. In March 29, 1947 Shukri al-Quwatli founded the Syrian National Party, as the successor of the National Bloc, with him as its leader. In April 9, 1947 the Baath Party was founded by Michel Aflaq and Salah al-Din al-Bitar, it calls for a pan Arab unity with Socialism as the economic doctrine. In June 20, 1947 Prime Minister Saadallah al-Jabiri died in office, and Jamil Mardam Bey replaced him. In March 1948 Parliament amended the constitution to give the constitutional right for the president to serve another 5 years- term, and in the same month Parliament reelected Shukri al-Quwatli a President to another 5 years term. In 1948 Rushdi Kekhia and Nazim al-Kudsi formed the People’s Party, which consisted of former National Bloc members, who refused to join the national party. The Syrian army participated in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War and is defeated. As a result, Ahmad Sharabati, the Minster of defense, resigned from the department of defense, accepting all blame for defeat at war.      [edit] Syrian army’s role in the 1948 Arab-Israeli War  The Syrian army played a limited role in the war.[2] Despite Syria’s initial losses, its forces quickly were able to occupy a thin strip of Israeli land running the length of its border during the first two months of the war. Much of this territory was easily taken for the border had been originally drawn by the British in 1923 with water in mind, not its defence.[3] The Israeli-Syrian border was drawn so that all of the Jordan River, Lake Tiberius, and the Hula swamp would be included in Israeli/Palestinian territory. To ensure the Syrians would not need access to the water outside of Syrian territory, the British had also included a strip of land on the Syrian side: 10-meters wide at Lake Tiberius and ranging from 50 to 400 meters wide along the Jordan River right up to Hula. Palestine also received a thin salient of land stretching east between the Syrian and Jordanian border along the Yarmouk River, the Jordan’s largest tributary, out to the town of al-Hamma – today’s Hamat-Gader. All of this territory east of the Jordan River and Lake Tiberius was indefensible and easily taken by Syrian troops. The Syrian army also managed to cross the Jordan River just south of Lake Hula to occupy Kibbutz Mishmar Hayarden and defend it against several Israeli counter-attacks.    Syrian forces also established a foothold in the extreme northeastern corner of Palestine, just east of the Jewish settlement of Dan. Thus, Syria occupied three distinct enclaves within Palestine in the northern, central, and southern regions of the 1923 border. These three enclaves added to the thin strip of land stretching along the eastern perimeter of the Jordan and Tiberius added up to 66.5 square kilometers of land. It would become part of the demilitarized zone following the 1949 armistice signed between Syria and Israel and remains contested between the two sides to this day.    Other than the two offensive operations to grab villages across the Jordan River, the Syrian army remained largely inactive during the 1948 war. The Arab Liberation Army (ALA) survived in the northern Galilee until November 1948, when it was driven into Lebanon by Jewish forces that were moved up from the south. The Syrian government persisted in denying assistance to the ALA during the summer of 1948, effectively “condemning them to death,” in the words of `Adil Arslan.      [edit] Military coups  Syria’s first coup d’état occurred In March 30, 1949, led by General Husni al-Zaim, a member of the Kurdish minority. Zaim was backed by the British, the French, the CIA, and by civilians who were tired of high prices, and from the leaderless Quwatli. People at that time believed that the coup was a result of the Arabic defeat at the 1948 war, as the officials declared, and at 1952, a similar coup occurred in Egypt for the same reason. Zaim declared that he would support any American pact in the Middle East, if they would support Syria and the area around. Zaim appointed himself a Prime Minister, and appointed a 7 members committee that drew up a secular constitution, that didn’t declare the state or official religion and didn’t declare a specific religion of the president. Zaim dissolved Parliament in April. Zaim Became a President in July 25, 1949 by a popular referendum winning 99.9. Zaim with secular views called women to stop the Islamic practice of veiling. Zaim appointed Muhsin al-Barazi a Prime Minister and then went on to launch large developing scale projects; by building schools, hospitals, roads, and by working on the project of Euphrates river dam to bring water to Aleppo, and initiating the Latakia harbor project. The new regime was overthrown in August by another coup d’état led by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi in August 14, 1949. Zaim and Barazi were executed after a military trial. Hinawi asked Hashim al-Atassi (president, 1936-39) to form a provisional government. Atasi as Prime Minister appointed a cabinet and under his leadership a counsel that held executive authorities was formed. General elections were held under a new electoral law (for the first time, women voted) in 15-16 November for a constituent assembly, which will draw up a civil constitution. The Aleppo party of Rushdi Kekhia the people’s party won major seats in the assembly. Rushdi Kekhia (leader of the people's party) was elected speaker of the constituent assembly, and Atasi was elected in December 14, 1949 as a head of state. A third coup d’état, led by Colonel Adib al-Shishakli, a former chief of police and head of security, occurred in December. Shishakli arrested the chief of staff, and the coup leader, Sami al- Hinawi, accusing him of instigation about the unity with Iraq, which was governed under the pro- British Hashemite family. The constituent assembly promulgated a new constitution in September 1950 and, assuming responsibility as the chamber of deputies, elected the head of state Hashim al-Atasi, to the presidency in September 7, 1950, and elected Rushdi Kekhia (ex-speaker of the constituent assembly) a speaker of the Parliament. In 1951 Baath party joined the Arab socialist party as the Arab Baath Socialist Party. .[neutrality disputed]      [edit] Years of influence and presidency of Shishakli  Shishakli asked Atasi to appoint Fawzi Selu (who allied himself with Shishakli) as a Minster of defense. Atasi appointed Maaruf al-Dawalibi (member of the People's Party) a Prime Minister, and asked him to appoint the cabinet. Douwalibi accepted this job but refused to appoint Selu as a Minster of Defense. In return, Shishakli carried out the fourth coup d’état in 29,November, 1951, arresting the Prime Minister, Cabinet, and people’s party members, and forcing president Atasi to resign. Shishakli, assuming responsibility as the Chief of Staff, dissolved Parliament, made every single political party and newspaper illegal, and appointed Fawzi Selu as President. Shishakli formed his own political party in August 25, 1952 called the Arab Liberation Movement ALM, and made it the only legal party in Syria. on July 11, 1953 Shishakli became President winning the plebiscite 99.8. Shishakli approved a new constitution in October 24, 1953. It made Syria a presidential republic with the ALM as the ruling party; the party held all 83 seats in the newly created chamber of deputies. The new constitution also restricted all civil liberties as provided by the 1950 constitution. Shishakli was ousted by coup d’état on February 24, 1954. Shishakli’s successors reinstated Atasi as president, reconvened the 1949 chamber of deputies, restored the constitution of 1950, reinstated the cabinet, and restored all Pre- Shishakli political elements..[4]      [edit] Civilian rule: 1954–1958  Free elections were held in September 1955, with a new chamber of deputies formed, and with Shukri al-Quwatli (president, 1943-49, and leader of the Syrian national party) as president. Sabri al-Asali was appointed Prime Minister in place of Fares al-Khoury by the following months. After 1955 many members of government became leftwing radical socialists. The Syrian Communist Party and Baath Party were allied with other leftwing socialist parties, and in 1957 they were in control of the government. Syria was declared pro soviet-anti western, resulting from deep disappointment with the west, especially with the British and the French and their actions toward Arabs in Paris conference. And it reached to a high pitch after the creation of Israel and the invasion of Sinai Peninsula. Syrian leaders initiated close and friendly relations with Egypt, under the presidency of Gamal Abdel Nasser, as a result, president Shukri al-Quwatli dismissed the French and British ambassadors, and ordered the army to destroy the Tapline, running through Syria. Close relations with the Soviet Union were initiated; many civil and military treaties were signed. In 1957 Syria received aid from the Soviet Union, who agreed to provide aid to Syria for 12 years. The government teamed up with the USSR in 1955 against the creation of the Baghdad Pact, a defensive alliance formed in that year by Turkey, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, and the United Kingdom. Syria also stood against the Eisenhower Doctrine, promulgated in January 1957 to face potential Communist spread in the Middle East. Conservatives tried to cut off the radicals, but failed. However a number of Conservative and right-wing parties’ deputies were accused of high treason in the same year.      [edit] United Arab Republic  In February 22, 1958, Syria and Egypt merged as one state and created the United Arab Republic UAR, with Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt as president. Nasser appointed the UAR cabinet, and Syrian politicians held a number of departments. In the following months Nasser dissolved all Syrian political parties. From September 1958 to February 1959 a land reform program was introduced, and private agricultural farms and territories were nationalized and were given to peasants. In July 1961 a socialist program was introduced, nationalizing all private banks and factories. In September 28, 1961 a group of army officers led by Karim an-Nahlawi seized power and declared Syria independent again. Nasser decided not to resist the separatists.      [edit] Post- union Regime  Civilian government was created in Damascus, and Syrian Arab Republic was declared the official name. Nazim al-Kudsi was elected a president, who appointed Marouf al-Douwalibi a Prime Minister. Marking anti-socialism sentiment, President Qudsi restored some of the nationalized factories and lands to their old owners. Qudsi regime was overthrown in March 28, 1962 by a military coup, lead also by Karim an-Nahlawi, who arrested president Qudsi and his Prime Minister Douwalibi. The 1950 constitution was restored with some amendments as the provisional constitution. Another military coup occurred in April 2, 1962, lead by Abdul Karim Zahreddin, who released Qudsi and Douwalibi, and dismissed Nahlawi from the Syrian army. President Qudsi appointed Khalid al-Azm a Prime Minister.      [edit] Baath takeover  In March 8, 1963, the military committee of the Baath party carried out a coup d’état, and the Baath Party took control of the government. The Revolutionary Command Counsel (RCC) chaired by Luai al-Atassi was formed in the same year, and Atassi as the chairman of the RCC headed the state, and asked Salah al-Din al-Bitar to appoint the cabinet. The RCC dissolved Parliament also in the same year. In July 1963, Amin Hafez, a member of the Baath party replaced Atassi in Chairing the RCC. A provisional constitution was promulgated in 1964, which declared the Baath party as the ruling party, and allowed the RCC to represent the legislative branch, and to elect a presidential counsel that appoints the cabinet, and both represent the executive branch. Amin Hafez, chairman of the RCC, became the chairman of the presidential counsel, and In January, he introduced another socialist program, nationalizing all private schools and universities, western churches and missionaries which backed to the 19th century, plus more than one hundred private companies, to extend state’s ownership to electricity generation, oil companies and distribution, ginning of cotton, trade, and religious institutions. In February 23, 1966, a military coup lead by Hafez al-Assad and Salah Jadid, both are members of the Baath party, forcing Amin Hafez to resign. Assad and Jadid appointed Nureddin al-Atassi a president, and replaced the provisional constitution with the 1966 provisional constitution; however, another provisional constitution was approved in 1969.      [edit] 1970–2000    [edit] Consolidation of power  Upon assuming presidency, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.      [edit] Yom Kippur War  Later in 1973, the Yom Kippur War broke out and "Syria mounted air attacks and heavy artillery shelling, and moved three divisions with some 1,400 tanks into the" Golan Heights to try and reclaim them from Israel.[1] Despite some initial successes, Syria's military was once again defeated by the IDF. At the end of the Yom Kippur war Israel still held the military advantage over Syria. Subsequent shuttle negotiations by Henry Kissinger resulted in Syria regaining control of part of the Golan, which the government portrayed as proof of victory. Since 1974, the Syrian-Israeli front has been quiet, with few disturbances of the cease-fire.      [edit] Involvement in Lebanon  Main article: Syrian presence in Lebanon  In early 1976, Syrian troops entered Lebanon at the request of the Lebanese government to stop the civil war. Syria at first entered on the side of the Maronites. Syria sent troops that later became the main core of the Arab Deterrent Force (ADF) established by the Arab League in October 1976. Syria brought the warring factions together in the Taif Agreement to end the civil war. The civil war was declared over on October 13, 1990. Syria helped the Lebanese government to reestablish control over much of the country. In April 26, 2005, Syria withdrew all of its troops from Lebanon, after the assassination of the former Lebanese Prime Minister Rafik Al-Hariri.    About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the civil war ended, to find employment and pursue business opportunities. In 1994, about 200,000 Syrian residents in the country were granted citizenship (see Demographics of Lebanon).      [edit] Opposition and repression  The authoritarian regime was not without its critics, though most were quickly dealt with. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from Sunni Muslims called the Muslim Brotherhood who reject the basic values of the secular Baath program and object to rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the regime. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government sent 12,000 troops to crush the opposition centred in the city of Hama. During the two weeks the city was under siege its infrastructure was devastated by artillery fire and many thousands of civilians were killed and wounded. Since then, public manifestations of anti-regime activity have been very limited. A challenge from within the regime came in 1984, when Hafez was hospitalized after a heart attack. His brother Rifaat then attempted to seize power using internal security forces under his control. Despite his poor health, Hafez managed to assert control and sent Rifaat into exile.      [edit] Relations with Iran  During the Iran-Iraq War Syria sided with Iran and was isolated by the other Arab countries, with the exception of Libya. There have been accusations, mainly by the US and Israel, that Syria served as a conduit for Iranian arms destined for Hezbollah.[citation needed]      [edit] Gulf War  Syria's 1991 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and with the West. Syria participated in the multilateral Middle East Peace Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafez Al-Assad's meeting with then US President Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.      [edit] Death and succession of Hafez al-Assad  Hafez al-Assad died on June 10, 2000, after thirty years in office. Within a few hours following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34 years old, which allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad legally to be eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. on July 10, 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote.      [edit] 2000–2004  In his inauguration speech delivered at the People's Council on July 17, 2000, Bashar Al-Assad promised political and democratic reform. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000 to February 2001). Enthusiasm faded quickly as the government cracked down on civil forums and reform activists, but there was still a notable liberalization compared to the totalitarianism of Hafez. The lifting of bans on Internet access, mobile telephones and the spread of computer technology has had a great impact on the previously isolated Syrian society, and the secret police's presence in society has been eased. Today there exists a small but growing number of dissident intellectuals, as well as several formerly illegal opposition parties. However, government power rests firmly in the hands of the Baath, and police surveillance and occasional crackdowns keeps opposition activities limited.    Syria opposed the Iraq War in March 2003, and bilateral relations with the U.S. swiftly deteriorated. At the moment there are negotiations on an Association Agreement between Syria and the European Union which would liberalize mutual trade. Syria is required to make certain political and economic reforms in order for this process to come into effect.    Syria has been alleged be a state giving safe haven to Palestinian militant groups and financing Hezbollah's actions in Lebanon.[2] The offices of Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad reside in Damascus with Sheikh Abdullah Ramadan being the most notable figure.      [edit] Events since 2004  On February 14, 2005, Rafik Hariri, the former Prime Minister of Lebanon, was killed by a car bomb in Beirut. Many members of the Lebanese opposition and international observers alleged that Hariri was assassinated by Syria. Popular protests soon arose, composed primarily of Christians, Druze and Sunni Muslims, demanding the resignation of the pro-Syria government led by Omar Karami, as well as the withdrawal of all Syrian troops and intelligence operatives. on February 28, 2005, Karami's government resigned, although he was reappointed a few days later. on March 5, 2005, after intense international pressure, president Bashar al-Assad of Syria made a speech before the Syrian Parliament, where he announced that Syria would complete a full withdrawal from Lebanon by May of 2005, ending thereby a 30-year military presence in this neighbouring country.    Syrian troops withdrew from Lebanon on April 26, 2005 under intense pressure from the Lebanese opposition and the international community. After two UN investigations (the FitzGerald Report and the Mehlis report) implicated Syrian officials in the Hariri killing, the Assad regime entered a turbulent period, the seriousness of the crisis signalled by the suicide of interior minister Ghazi Kanaan, as well as Western threats of economic sanctions.    In December 2005 the former Vice-President Abdul Halim Khaddam claimed in an interview with Al-Arabiya, the Arab satellite channel, that Bashar al-Assad had, ‘threatened Rafiq al-Hariri months before the former Lebanese prime minister was assassinated.’ (Al Jazeera English 08.06.06) Syria denied the charges and called for Khaddam’s trial as a traitor. An in absentia arrest warrant was subsequently issued against him on 5th June 2006.    On 15 December 2005 Mehlis was replaced as head of the UN investigation team by the Belgian Serge Brammertz.[5] Under the second part of the investigation, led by the Belgian Serge Brammertz, there has clearly been a better tone between the UN investigative team and the Syrian authorities. Brammertz, unlike his predecessor Mehlis, has also chosen to be discreet about his findings – making his final conclusions all the more unpredictable[6] – but he stated in his September 2006 interim report that Syria’s co-operation with the UN investigators, ‘remained generally satisfactory’ (HRW World Report 2007, p3)    On June 16, 2006 the defence ministers of Iran and Syria signed an agreement for military cooperation against what they called the "common threats" presented by Israel and the United States. Details of the agreement were not specified, however Syrian defence minister Najjar said "Iran considers Syria's security its own security, and we consider our defense capabilities to be those of Syria." The visit also resulted in the sale of Iranian military hardware to Syria.[3][4]      [edit] Administrative divisions  Main article: Governorates of Syria  Syria has fourteen governorates, or muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). A governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the interior, approved by the cabinet, and announced by executive decree, heads each governorate. The governor is assisted by an elected provincial council. Note that parts that used to be under the Quneitra governorate are under Israeli control since 1967 (see Golan Heights).    Damascus  Rif Dimashq  Quneitra  Daraa  As Suwaydā'  Homs  Tartous  Latakia  Hama  Idlib  Aleppo  Ar Raqqah  Deir ez-Zor  Al Hasakah        [edit] Major cities  Damascus - Aleppo - Latakia - Homs - Hama      [edit] Minor cities  Al Hasakah - Deir ez-Zor - Ar Raqqah - Idlib - Daraa -Suwayda - Tartous      [edit] Towns  Kamichli- Al-Rastan - Masyaf - Safita - Jabala - Al-Thawrah - Duma - Banias - Al-Nabk- Qusair - Maaloula - Zabadani      [edit] Villages  Albaida - Marmarita - Mashta Al helou- Rhablee - Sirghaya - Fairouzeh - Zaidal      [edit] Politics  Main article: Politics of Syria    President Bashar al-Assad of Syria.Syria is a parliamentary republic. All three branches of government are guided by the views of the Baath Party, whose primacy in state institutions is assured by the constitution. In addition, six other political parties are permitted to exist and, along with the Baath Party, make up the National Progressive Front (NPF), a grouping of parties that represents the sole framework of legal political party participation for citizens. While created ostensibly to give the appearance of a multi-party system, the NPF is dominated by the Baath Party and does not change the essentially one-party character of the political system. The Baath Party dominates the Parliament, which is known as the People's Council (majlis ash-sha'b). Elected every four years, the Council has no independent authority. Although parliamentarians may criticize policies and modify draft laws, they cannot initiate laws, and the executive branch retains ultimate control over the legislative process. It essentially functions as a rubber-stamp for the executive authority.    There was a surge of interest in political reform after Bashar al-Assad assumed power in 2000. Human rights activists and other civil society advocates, as well as some Parliamentarians, became more outspoken during a period referred to as "Damascus Spring" (July 2000-February 2001).      [edit] Government  The Syrian constitution vests the Arab Baath Socialist Party with leadership functions in the state and society and provides broad powers to the president. The president, approved by referendum for a 7-year term, also is Secretary General of the Baath Party and leader of the National Progressive Front.    The president has the right to appoint ministers, to declare war and states of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel. Along with the National Progressive Front, the president decides issues of war and peace and approves the state's 5-year economic plans. The National Progressive Front also acts as a forum in which economic policies are debated and the country's political orientation is determined.      [edit] Human rights  Main article: Human rights in Syria  A state of emergency imposed by the government has remained in effect since 1963 despite public calls by Syrian reformists for its repeal. Since then, security forces have committed human rights abuses including arbitrary arrest and detention, prolonged detention without trial, unfair trials in the security courts, and infringement on privacy rights. Amnesty International estimates around 600 political prisoners remain.    Prison conditions do not meet international standards for health and sanitation. The regime restricts freedom of speech, press, assembly, association, and political opposition. According to Arab Press Freedom Watch, the current government has a poor record on freedom of ｅxpression.    In 2005 Freedom House rated political rights and civil liberties in Syria as “7” (1 representing the most free and 7 the least free rating) and gave it the freedom rating of “Not Free” [3]. There have been no changes in these ratings since 1972.[5]    Human Rights Watch World Report 2007 confirmed that the human rights situation in Syria continued to deteriorate further in 2006. ‘thousands of political prisoners, many of them members of the banned Muslim Brotherhood and Communist Party remained in detention’ (HRW World Report 2007, p1). The Syrian authorities have refused to confirm the numbers and names of those detained but the Syrian Human Rights Committee based in London estimated the figure to be approximately 4,000.    Syria continues to use the death penalty and HRW have documented many instances of arbitrary detention, torture and disappearances in 2006.    Kurds continue to suffer discrimination and violence. At ten percent of the population they form the largest ethnic minority group in Syria. An estimated 300,000 Syria born Kurds are still denied citizenship.    Despite a constitution which guarantees gender equality there have been no changes in 2006 to the discriminatory laws which affect millions of women in both the public and private spheres. For example the penal code continues to contain a provision that allows a judge to suspend punishment for a rapist if he marries his victim and within marriage women are still treated as their husband’s chattel.      [edit] Geography    Satellite image of Syria (border lines added).Main article: Geography of Syria  Syria consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering the Mediterranean is fairly green. The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South "Hawran" are important agricultural areas. The Euphrates, Syria's most important river, crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that comprise the so-called "Cradle of Civilization".    Major cities include the capital Damascus in the southwest, Aleppo in the north, and Homs. Most of the other important cities are located along the coast line (see List of cities in Syria).    The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.      [edit] Economy  Main article: Economy of Syria  Syria is a middle-income, developing country with a diversified economy based on agriculture, industry, and energy. During the 1960s, citing its state socialist ideology, the government nationalized most major enterprises and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and class disparities. This legacy of state intervention and price, trade, and foreign exchange controls still hampers economic growth, although the government has begun to revisit many of these policies, especially in the financial sector and the country's trade regime. Despite a number of significant reforms and ambitious development projects of the early 1990s, as well as more modest reform efforts currently underway, Syria's economy still is slowed by large numbers of poorly performing public sector firms, low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity.    Despite the mitigation of the severe drought that plagued the region in the late 1990s and the recovery of energy export revenues, Syria's economy faces serious challenges. With almost 60% of its population under the age of 20, unemployment higher than the current estimated range of 20%-25% is a real possibility unless sustained and strong economic growth takes off. Oil production has levelled off, but recent agreements allowing increased foreign investment in the petroleum sector may boost production in two to three years.    The bulk of Syrian imports have been raw materials essential for industry, agriculture, equipment, and machinery. Major exports include crude oil, refined products, raw cotton, clothing, fruits, and cereal grains. Earnings from oil exports are one of the government's most important sources of foreign exchange.    Of Syria's 72,000 square miles (186,000 km²), roughly one-third is arable, with 80% of cultivated areas dependent on rainfall for water. In recent years, the agriculture sector has recovered from years of government inattentiveness and drought. Most farms are privately owned, but the government controls important elements of marketing and transportation.      [edit] Demographics  Main article: Demographics of Syria  Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density is about 258 per square mile (99/km²). Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is required for university admission. Total enrolment at post-secondary schools is over 150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 86% for males and 73.6% for females.      [edit] Ethnic groups  Arabs (including some 400,000 Palestinian refugees) make up over 85% of the population. The Kurds, linguistically an Indo-Iranian people, constitute the largest ethnic minority, making up 10% of the population. Most Kurds reside in the northeast corner of Syria and many still speak the Kurdish language. Sizable Kurdish communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. The Assyrian Christians are also a notable minority (about 3%) that live in north and northeast Syria. Syria also holds the 8th largest Armenian population in the world. In addition, 1.2 million Iraqi refugees are living in Syria as of March 20, 2007    Ethnic Syrians are an overall Semitic Levantine people. While modern-day Syrians are commonly described as Arabs by virtue of their modern-day language and bonds to Arab culture and history — they are in fact a blend of the various ancient Semitic groups indigenous to the region who in turn admixed with Arab settlers and immigrants who arrived following the Arab expansion. There is also a smaller degree of admixture from non-Semitic peoples that have occupied the region over time.      [edit] Religion  Syria's population is approximately 90% Muslim and 10% Christian. Among Muslims, 75% are Sunni;[6] the rest are divided among other Muslim sects, mainly Alawis and Druze, but also a small number of Isma'ili and twelver Shi'a, which has increased dramatically due to the influx of Iraqi refugees. Christians, a sizable number of which are also found among Syrian Palestinians, are divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox ("Greek Orthodox") make up 50-55% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Latin, Armenian, Maronite, Caldean, Melkite and Syriac) make up 18%, Assyrian Christians, Armenian Oriental Orthodox centred in Aleppo, the native Syriac Orthodox Church and several smaller Christians groups account for the remainder. There also is a tiny Syrian Jewish community that is confined mainly to Damascus; remnants of a formerly 40,000 strong community. After the 1947 UN Partition plan in Palestine, there were heavy pogroms against Jews in Damascus and Aleppo. The Jewish property was confiscated or burned and after the establishment of the State of Israel, many fled to Israel and only 5000 Jews were left in Syria. Of these, 4000 more left after agreement with the United States in the 1990s. As of 2006, there are only 100-200 Jews left in Syria.      [edit] Languages  Arabic is the official and most widely spoken language. Kurdish is widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria. Many educated Syrians also speak English or French, but English is more widely understood. Armenian and Türkmen are spoken among the Armenian and Türkmen minorities. Aramaic, the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Islam and Arabic, is spoken among certain ethnic groups: as Syriac, it is used as the liturgical language of various Syriac denominations; modern Aramaic (particularly, Turoyo language and Assyrian Neo-Aramaic) is spoken in Al-Jazira region. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Ma`loula, and two neighbouring villages, 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus.      [edit] Culture  Syria offered the world the Ugarit cuneiform, the root for the Phoenician alphabet, which dates back to the fourteenth century BC. The alphabet was written in the familiar order we use today.    Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a culture rivaling those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla. Later Syrian scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Cicero was a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of Apamea influenced Livy and Plutarch.    Philip Hitti claimed, "the scholars consider Syria as the teacher for the human characteristics," and Andrea Parrout writes, "each civilized person in the world should admit that he has two home countries: the one he was born in, and Syria."    Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history. Importance is placed on family, religion, education and self discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkes in all their variations and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.    Traditional Houses of the Old Cities in Damascus, Aleppo and the other Syrian cities are preserved and traditionally the living quarters are arranged around one or more courtyards, typically with a fountain in the middle supplied by spring water, and decorated with citrus trees, grape vines, and flowers.    Outside of larger city areas such as Damascus, Aleppo or Homs, residential areas are often clustered in smaller villages. The buildings themselves are often quite old (perhaps a few hundred years old), passed down to family members over several generations. Residential construction of rough concrete and blockwork is usually unpainted, and the palette of a Syrian village is therefore simple tones of greys and browns.    Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the nineteenth century. Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer.    Syria has a small cinema industry, with production entirely in the hands of the state National Cinema Organisation, which employs film-makers as civil servants. Funding is only sufficient to produce approximately one feature film every year, and these are often then banned by the political censor, but have won prizes at international festivals. Notable directors include Omar Amirali, Usama Muhammad, and Abd al-Latif Abd al-Hamid. Syrian directors have also worked abroad, in Egypt and Europe.    There was a private sector presence in the Syrian cinema industry until the end of the 1970s, but private investment has since preferred the more lucrative television serial business. Syrian soap operas, in a variety of styles (all melodramatic, however), have considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.    Although declining, Syria's world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.    Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Middle Eastern dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like shish kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves, the word yapra' derıves from the Turkish word 'yaprak' meaning leaf in Turkish), shawarma ,and falafel are very popular in Syria as the food there is diverse in taste and type. Restaurants are usually open (food is served outdoors).

[ 2007-04-08, 02:05 ]