이란을 우습게 보는 바보들에게

이란인들은 세계적인 大제국 다섯 개를 만들었다. 이슬람은 이란인들에 의해서 풍성해졌다.

趙甲濟

최근 중동에 주재하는 한 한국대사를 만났다. 그는 이슬람 문화와 역사에 관련된 책도 번역하고 현지 대학에 나가 강의도 하는 학구파였다. 그는 이런 말을 했다.    "미국이 이란을 저렇게 대우하면 안됩니다. 이란과 페르샤의 역사를 알면 그렇게 마구 대할 순 없습니다"    영국의 이슬람 전문학자 버나드 루이스가 쓴 '바벨(Babel)에서 드라고만스(Dragomans)까지: 중동을 통역한다'라는 논평집을 읽다가 비슷한 대목과 만났다. 그는 이란이 인류역사, 특히 이슬람 문화에 끼친 막중한 영향력을 강조했다. 이 글을 읽고나니 호메이니로 대표되는 이란이 아닌 다양하고 풍성하고 교양 있는 페르샤의 모습이 떠올랐다. 지금의 문제점을 가지고, 그것도 서구식-기독교적 관점에서만 본 문제의식을 가지고는 파악할 수 없는 거대하고 깊은 나라가 이란이다.    이란의 독특하고 위대한 역사와 문화는 먼저 이슬람과 연관되어 설명하는 것이 편하겠다. 이란을 아랍국가로 오해하는 이들이 많다. 이란은 이슬람 국가이지만 아랍국가는 아니다. 이란인들은 아랍족이 아니고 아랍어를 쓰지 않는다. 그들은 지금의 유럽, 특히 게르만족과 뿌리가 같은 인종이다. 히틀러는 독일사람들의 인종적 뿌리를 아리안족이라 불렀다. 이란과 아리안은 같은 뜻이다.    이란은 이슬람화되었지만 다른 中東국가처럼 아랍화되지는 않았다. 첫째, 언어가 아랍화되지 않았다. 서기 7~8세기에 이슬람을 받아들인 거의 모든 中東국가들은 고유언어를 버리고 아랍어를 쓰기 시작했다. 이집트, 이라크, 시리아 같은 最古의 문명과 언어를 자랑하는 나라들도 母國語를 버리고 아랍어를 쓰게 되었다. 따라서 자신들의 고유문화와 상당부분 단절되었다. 이슬람은 또 이슬람의 宗敎史를 중점적으로 가르치지 국가와 민족의 역사는 무시하는 경향이 강하다.    이란은 아랍인들에 의해 점령되고 이슬람을 수용했지만 이란어를 포기하지 않았다. 이란어는 독일어나 영어와 비슷한 구조이고 단어도 비슷한 게 많다. 17세기에 비엔나에 파견된 오토만 투르크 대사는 "합스부르그 왕조 사람들은 잡스러워진 이란어를 쓰고 있다"고 오해했다고 한다.    이란인들은 이슬람을 받아들이면서 母國語를 지켜갔지만 동시에 아랍어도 배웠다. 이란의 많은 문학가와 지식인들이 아랍어로 시와 소설을 쓰기 시작했다. 이는 이슬람 문화를 풍성하게 만들었다. 사우디 아라비아에서 발상한 이슬람은 문화적 깊이가 약했다. 아랍 이슬람은 이란을 이슬람화함으로써 제2의 도약을 했다. 사막적인 종교가 아닌 문화적 종교, 세계적 종교로 변한 것이다. 메디안-페르샤-파르티아-사산朝로 이어지면서 축적된 독창적이고 풍성한 이란문명이 이슬람에 수혈되어 이슬람을 생동감 넘치는 종교로 거듭 태어나게 만든 것이다.    세계로 퍼져간 것은 사막적(아랍적)인 이슬람이 아니라 페르샤적인 이슬람(Persian Islam)이었다고 버나드 루이스는 강조한다. 중앙아시아, 오토만 투르크, 인도지역이 페르샤적인 이슬람 문화권에 들어갔다.    이란의 이런 문화적 힘은 역사에서 우러난 것이다. 이란은 중동국가들 가운데 독자성을 가장 오래 유지한 나라이다. 다른 中東국가들은 이 민족, 저 민족에 의하여 침공받고 점령되어 문화적 독자성을 오래 유지하기가 매우 어려웠다. 시리아를 예로 들면 약8000년의 역사를 통해 33개 문명이 교차했다.    이란(페르샤)은 그리스로 대표되는 서양에 대해서 항상 優位를 지켜오다가 서기 전 4세기 알렉산더 대왕에 의하여 잠시 점령되었으나 곧 파르티아 제국을 만들어 독립했다. 파르티아 제국은 로마의 침공도 저지하여 페르샤 지역을 서양화(기독교화)시키지 않았다. 그리스-로마 문화의 영향을 거의 받지 않았다.    파르티아를 이은 제국은 사산朝였다. 이 제국은 7세기에 시리아에 본부를 둔 움마야드 왕조에 의해 점령되어 이슬람화되었으나 이란인들은 이슬람을 페르샤화해버렸다. 우수한 문화를 가진 민족은 저급한 문화를 가진 민족에 의해 정복되지만 그 문화의 힘으로 정복자를 다시 정복해버린다. 이란은 이슬람의 주인공이 되어버린 셈이다. 압바시드 왕조가 움마야드 왕조를 멸망시키고 수도를 바그다드로 옮기는 과정에서도 이란 장군들이 결정적 역할을 했다. 압바시드 왕조를 실질적으로 움직인 관료, 지식인들은 거의가 이란인들이었다.    13세기에 몽골, 15세기에 티무르의 침공을 받은 이란은 황폐되었다. 이란이 몽골의 西征으로부터 가장 큰 피해를 당했다. 인구의 약 반이 죽었다고 한다. 몽골이 중국의 宋을 점령하고 세운 元의 관료층 안에는 이란 지식인들이 많았다. 이슬람을 믿는 16세기의 몽골 기마군단이 인도를 점령하고 세운 무갈 제국의 지배층안에도 이란인들이 많았다. 이란은 주변지역, 즉 中東, 중앙 아시아, 터키, 인도를 밝히는 문화적 등불이었다.    1501년 이란에서 사파비드 제국이 일어났다. 이란인들은 세계 역사에 남을 만한 다섯 개의 大제국을 만든 민족이다. 메디안-페르샤-파르티아-사산朝-사파비드 제국이 그것이다. 사파비드 제국은 16~20세기까지 존속했다.    이 기간에 中東 이슬람 세계에는 두 라이벌이 있었다. 오토만 투르크와 사파비드 제국의 이란이었다. 오토만 투르크는 중동, 유럽, 아프리카에 걸친 대제국을 건설하여 두 차례 비엔나를 포위하는 등 유럽을 위협했으나 이란을 점령하지는 못했다. 영국의 이슬람 전문가 버나드 루이스에 따르면 오토만 투르크 제국은 문명적 측면에선 이란의 영향권 아래 들어 있었다고 한다. 루이스는 현재의 中東도 터키와 이란이 兩大 축을 이루고 있다고 말한다.    國父 케말 파샤의 政敎분리 원칙에 입각한 터키는 세속적인 공화국이고 호메이니의 원리주의에 입각한 이란은 政敎일치의 이슬람 공화국이란 차이가 있다. 인구도 두 나라는 비슷하다(약8000만 명). 터키는 이스라엘과 미국과 친하고 이란은 원수지간이다. 이란이 핵무장하면 터키도 대응 핵무장을 할 것이라고 한다.    이란의 이런 독자성을 유지해온 여러 가지 힘중의 하나는 과거 역사와 문화에 대한 이란인들의 자존심이다. 이런 이란을 부시 대통령은 이라크의 후세인 정권, 북한의 김정일 정권과 함께 '惡의 軸'이라고 불렀다. 김정일이야 惡의 軸이 아니라 악마 그 자체이다. 하지만 이란을 이런 김정일 정권과 同格에 놓을 수 있는가?    요사이 할리우드에서 만든 '300'이란 영화는 페르샤의 大軍을 무찌른 스파르타의 300 용사를 超人으로 만들고 페르샤 군대를 괴물이나 바보멍텅구리 집단으로 그렸다. 이란 사람들이 화를 낸 것이 이해가 된다. 이란에 대해서 무식하면 그렇게 할 수 있다. 역사는 문학, 철학과 함께 교양인의 필수과목이다. 역사공부는 다른 문화와 민족에 대한 이해를 통해서 마음을 넓혀주고 생각을 깊게 해준다. 다른 민족과 문화에 대한 존중심을 심어준다.    부시가 이라크 침공작전을 펴기 전에 버나드 루이스 같은 大家를 백악관으로 초빙하여 몇 시간 강의를 들었다면 다른 전략이 나왔을지 모른다. 당시 미국 CIA 국장 테닛은 최근 회고록에서 "이라크를 왜 굳이 쳐야 하는지에 대한 진지한 토론이 한번도 없었다"고 말했다. 易地思之(역지사지)할 수 있게 해주는 것이 역사공부이다.    ================================================================        --------------------------------------------------------------  Iran  From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia  Jump to: navigation, search   Editing of this article by unregistered or newly registered users is currently disabled. If you are prevented from editing this article, and you wish to make a change, please discuss changes on the talk page, request unprotection, log in, or create an account.      جمهوری اسلامی ايران  Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān  Islamic Republic of Iran    Flag Emblem    Motto  (official)  Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī 1 (Persian)  "Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic"        (ancient)  Kerdār-e nīk, pendār-e nīk, goftār-e nīk (Persian)  "Noble deeds, noble thoughts, noble words"  Anthem  Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān 2    Capital  (and largest city) Tehran  35°41′N, 51°25′E  Official languages Persian  Government Islamic Republic   - Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei   - President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad  Establishment   - Proto-Elamite Period 8000 BC   - Middle-Elamite Period 3400-550 BC   - Creation of first Iranian dynastic empire (Median)  728-550 BC   - Achaemenid dynastic empire (unification)  550-330 BC   - Parthian (Arsacid) dynastic empire  (first reunification)    248 BC-224 AD   - Sassanid  dynastic empire  224-651 AD   - Safavid dynasty  (second reunification)  May 1502   - First Constitution 1906   - Islamic Revolution 1979  Area   - Total 1,648,195 km² (18th)  636,372 sq mi   - Water (%) 0.7  Population   - 2006 census 70,049,2623 (17th)   - Density 42 /km² (158th)  109 /sq mi  GDP (PPP) 2005 estimate   - Total $610.4 billion4 (19th)   - Per capita $8,9004 (71st)  HDI (2004) 0.746 (medium) (96th)  Currency Iranian rial (ريال) (IRR)  Time zone IRST (UTC+3:30)   - Summer (DST) not observed (UTC+3:30)  Internet TLD .ir  Calling code +98  1 bookrags.com  2 iranchamber.com  3 Statistical Center, Government of Iran. "سرشماری ۱۳۸۵". Retrieved on 2006-12-03.  4 CIA Factbook  Iran, (Persian: ايران, Īrān; pronunciation: [iːˈɾɒn]), officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: جمهوری اسلامی ايران, transliteration: Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān), formerly known internationally as Persia, is a Southwest Asian country located in the geographical territories of the Middle East, Central Asia and the Caucasus. The 18th largest country in the world, Iran is approximately the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined and has a population of over 70 million people. Iran borders Armenia, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan to the north, Afghanistan and Pakistan to the east, and Turkey and Iraq to the west. In addition, it borders the Persian Gulf, an important oil-producing area, and the Caspian sea. Shi'a Islam is the official state religion and Persian the official language.[1] The political system of Iran comprises several intricately connected governing bodies and is based on the 1979 Constitution. The highest state authority is the Supreme Leader, currently served by Ali Khamenei.    Iran has one of the oldest histories in the world, extending nearly 6,000 years,[2] and throughout history, Iran has been of geostrategic importance because of its central location in Eurasia. Iran is a founding member of the UN, NAM, OIC, OPEC, and ECO. Iran as a regional power occupies an important position in the world economy due to its substantial reserves of petroleum and natural gas, and has considerable regional influence in Southwest Asia.[3] Iran is also one of the few states that comprise the Cradle of Humanity. The name Iran is a cognate of Aryan and literally means "Land of the Aryans."[4]    Contents [hide]  1 Etymology  2 History  2.1 Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)  2.2 Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE)  2.3 Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanid Empire (224 – 651 CE)  2.4 From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652-1501 AD)  2.5 The birth of modern Iran: Rise of the Safavid Empire (1501 – 1920)  2.6 From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921 – 1979)  2.7 Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979 – 1988)  3 Government and politics  4 Provinces  4.1 Major cities  5 Geography and climate  6 Economy  6.1 Energy  6.2 Tourism  7 Demography  8 Military  9 Culture  9.1 Persian language  9.1.1 Poetry  9.2 Architecture  9.3 Iranian art  9.4 Cinema  9.5 Cuisine  10 Science and technology  11 Sports  12 See also  13 References  14 Further reading  15 External links        Etymology  The term 'Iran' derives immediately from Middle Persian Ērān, Pahlavi ʼyrʼn, first attested in the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of Ardashir I at Naqsh-e Rustam.[5] In this inscription, the king's Middle Persian appellation is ardašīr šāhān šāh ērān while in the Parthian language inscription that accompanies the Middle Persian one the king is titled ardašīr šāhān šāh aryān (Pahlavi: ... ʼryʼn).    The gentilic ēr- and ary- in ērān/aryān derives from Old Iranian arya-[5] (Old Persian ariya-, Avestan airiia-, etc.), meaning "Aryan,"[5] in the sense of "of the Iranians."[5][6]    In this ancestral form as Old Iranian ariya- and airiia-, ērān is attested as an ethnic designator in Achaemenid inscriptions and in Zoroastrianism's Avesta tradition,[7] and it seems "very likely"[5] that in Ardashir's time "ērān still retained this meaning, denoting the people rather than the state.    Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ērān to refer to the Iranian peoples, the use of ērān to refer to the empire (and the antonymic anērān to refer to the Roman territories) is also attested by the early Sassanid period. Both ērān and anērān appear in 3rd century calendrical text written by Mani. In an inscription of Ardashir's son and immediate successor, Shapur I "apparently includes in Ērān regions such as Armenia and the Caucasus which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."[8] In Kartir's inscriptions (written thirty years after Shapur's), the high priest includes the same regions (together with Georgia, Albania, Syria and the Pontus) in his list of provinces of the antonymic Anērān.[8] Ērān also features in the names of the towns founded by Sassanid dynasts, for instance in Ērān-xwarrah-šābuhr "Glory of Ērān (of) Shapur". It also appears in the titles of government officers, such as in Ērān-āmārgar "Accountant-General (of) Ērān" or Ērān-dibirbed "Chief Scribe (of) Ērān".[5]    Shapur's trilingual inscription at Ka'ba-i Zartosht also introduces the term ērānšah, "kingdom of the Iranians", that is however not attested in any other texts of this period other than in royal inscriptions (it is however preserved in post-Sassanid-era Zoroastrian texts).[5] Because the term does does not appear in Old Iranian (where it would have been *aryānām xšaθra- or in Old Persian *- xšaça-, "rule, reign, sovereignty"), the concept is presumed[5] to have been a Sassanid-era development. In the Greek portion of Shapur's trilingual inscription the word šahr "kingdom" appears as ethnous "nation". For speakers of Greek, the idea of an Iranian ethnous was not new: In the 1st century BCE, Strabo had noted a relationship between the various Iranian peoples and their languages: "[From] beyond the Indus [...] Ariana is extended so as to include some part of Persia, Media, and the north of Bactria and Sogdiana; for these nations speak nearly the same language." (Geography, 15.2.1-15.2.8[9]).    Since the Iranian Revolution of 1979, the official name of the country is "Islamic Republic of Iran." For the pre-1935 use of "Persia" as the western name for Iran, see Iran naming dispute.      History  Main article: History of Iran  See also: Persian Empire    Early history and the Median and Achaemenian Empires (3200 BCE – 330 BCE)    Cyrus the Great was the founder of the Persian Empire, and the author of "the world's oldest human rights declaration".[10][11][12]  The Achaemenian Empire (559–330 BCE) at its greatest extent.Main articles: Median Empire, Achaemenid Empire, Elamites, Jiroft civilization, and Zayandeh Rud civilization  Dozens of pre-historic sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements, centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby Mesopotamia.[13]    The written history of Persia (Iran) begins around 3200 BCE with the Proto-Iranian civilization,[14] followed by the Elamites. The arrival of the Aryans (Indo-Iranians) in the third and second millennium BCE and the establishing of the Median dynasty (728–550 BCE) culminated in the first Iranian Empire. The Medes are credited with the foundation of Iran as a nation and empire, the largest of its day, until Cyrus the Great established a unified empire of the Medes and Persians leading to the Achaemenid Empire (648–330 BCE), founded by Cyrus the Great.    After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, Darius was declared king (ruled 522-486 BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Persian rulers.    While Darius's first capital was at Susa, he also initiated the construction of Persepolis. He then built a canal between the Nile and the Red Sea, a forerunner of the modern Suez Canal. It is during his reign that mention is first made of the Royal Road (shown on map), a great highway stretching all the way from Susa to Sardis with posting stations at regular intervals.    Under Cyrus the Great and Darius the Great, the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point, ruling over most of the known world.[15] Their greatest achievement was the empire itself. The Persian Empire represented the world's first global superpower,[16][17][18]      2500 year-old relief in Apadana Hall.  The Arg-e Bam citadel, built before 500 BC.The borders of the Persian empire stretched from the Indus and Oxus Rivers in the East to the Mediterranean Sea in the West, extending through Anatolia (modern day Turkey) and Egypt. But in 499 BCE, one of the cities along the cost of Anatolia, Miletus, ruled by a Greek tyrant named Aristagoras, staged a revolt and turned to the Athenians for aid. Until then the Persians had no plan or desire to go into Europe. Subsequently, an Athenian assault on a major Persian province culminated in the sacking and burning of the city of Sardis. It is this event that escalated into what is known as the Greco-Persian Wars, which included encounters such as the Battle of Thermopylae. In 494 BCE the Persians defeated the Greeks at the battle of Lade, and the coast of Anatolia was once again peaceful.[19]    Alexander of Macedon - referred to as "the accursed" in the Zoroastrian Middle Persian Book of Arda Viraz - invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, conclusively defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor Darius III at the Battle of Issus in 333 BCE. In 330 BCE, Alexander occupied Persepolis (and according to legend, had it destroyed) and Pasargadae, leaving them and the rest of the Pars province in control of one of his officers before moving on northwards. In the same year, Alexander occupied in quick succession Aspardana (present day Isfahan), Ecbatana in Media (present day Hamadan), Hecatompylos in Hyrancia (present day Mazandaran), Susia in Parthia (in present day North Khorasan). He then turned southwards and occupied Prophtasia in Drangiana (present day Sistan). The next year, in 329 BCE, Alexander took the satrapy capitals at Kandahar in Arachosia, Kabura (Kabul), Bactra (Balkh) in Bactria, and finally Maracanda (Samarkand) in Sogdiana before leaving imperial territory in 328-327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the partitioning of the former empire after Alexander's death. A reunification would not occur until 700 years later, under the Sassanids (see below). Unlike the diadochic Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a vassalary system, the Sassanids - like the Achaemenids - had a system of governors (MP: shahrab) personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government.      Third Iranian Empire: Parthian Empire (248 BCE – 224 CE)    Coin of Phraates IV. The inscription reads: Benefactor Arsaces, civilized, friend of Greeks.  A second century BCE bust of a Parthian warrior from Nysa, capital of the Parthian homeland.Main articles: Parthian Empire and Seleucid Empire  Parthia was led by the Arsacid dynasty, who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau, after defeating the Greek Seleucid Empire, beginning in the late third century BCE, and intermittently controlled Mesopotamia between ca 150 BCE and 224&nbdp;CE. These were the third native dynasty of ancient Iran (Persia) and lasted five centuries.    Parthia was the arch-enemy of the Roman Empire in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond Cappadocia (central Anatolia). By using a heavily-armed and armored cataphract cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile mounted archers, the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".[20] Rome's acclaimed general Mark Antony led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor Augustus, Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of golden eagles, the cherished standards of Rome's legions, captured from Mark Antony, and Crassus, who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at Carrhae in 53BCE.[21]    Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear ｅxpression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".[22] The Parthians were innovators of many architecture designs such as that of Ctesiphon, which later on "influenced European Romanesque architecture".[23]      Fourth Iranian Empire: Sassanid Empire (224 – 651 CE)  Main articles: Sassanid Empire and Sassanid Art    Bust of Shapur II the Great displays the craftsmanship commanded by Sassanid artisans.The end of the Parthian Empire came in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by Ardashir I, one of the empire's vassals. Ardashir I then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily.      The Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent.The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, with their capital at Ctesiphon, and called their empire Erânshahr (or Iranshahr, "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of Iranians).[24]    During their reign, Sassanid battles with the Roman Empire caused such pessimism in Rome that the historian Cassius Dio wrote:    “ Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all."   ”    [25]    The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by Ardashir I, Shapur I, and Shapur II.[26] During this period the religion of Mithraism as restructured by Prophet Zoroaster, was practiced throughout the Roman Empire and became particularly popular among Roman Soldiers.[27][28]    Under the Sassanids, Persia expanded relations with China, the arts, music, and architecture greatly flourished, and centers such as the School of Nisibis and Academy of Gundishapur became world renowned centers of science and scholarship.    After roughly six hundred years of confrontation and rivalry with the Roman Empire, raids from the Arab peninsula began attacking the Sassanin and Byzantine frontiers in which a war-exhausted Persia was defeated in the Battle of al-Qâdisiyah, paving way for the Islamic conquest of Persia.      From the fall of the Sassanid Dynasty to the Safavid Empire (652-1501 AD)  Main articles: Ilkhanate, Timurid dynasty, Mongol Empire, Khwarezmian Empire, Seljuk dynasty, Buyid Dynasty, and Ghaznavid Empire    A Latin copy of Avicenna's Canon of Medicine, which was the standard medical text in Europe for seven centuries.  Hakīm Abol-Qāsem Ferdowsi (935–1020) is perhaps the most revered Persian poet. He was the author of the national epic of Iran Shāhnāma, and credited with preserving the Persian language.After the Islamic conquest of Persia, Persia was annexed into the Arab Umayyad Caliphate. But the Islamization of Iran was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of Persian literature, philosophy, medicine and art became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. Inheriting a heritage of thousands of years of civilization, and being at the "crossroads of the major cultural highways",[29] contributed to Persia emerging as what culminated into the "Islamic Golden Age".    It was the Persian general Abu Moslem, who expelled the Umayyads from Damascus and helped the Abbasid caliphs to conquer Baghdad. The Abbasid caliphs frequently chose their "wazirs" (viziers) among Persians, and Persian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 AD, the governor of Khorasan, Tahir, proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of Tahirids. And by the Samanid era, Persia's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.[30] Attempts of Arabization thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the Shuubiyah became catalysts for Persians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders.    The cultural revival of the post-Abbasid period led to a resurfacing of Persian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the ninth and tenth centuries. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the Persian language, the language of the Persians and the official language of Iran to the present day. Ferdowsi, Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.    During this period, hundreds of scholars and scientists vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during the Renaissance.[31] The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when Mahmud-a Ghaznavi founded a vast empire, with its capital at Isfahan and Ghazna. Their successors, the Seljuks, asserted their domination from the Mediterranean Sea to Central Asia. As with their predecessors, the divan of the empire was in the hands of Persian viziers, who founded the Nizamiyya.    In 1218, the eastern Khwarazmid provinces of Transoxiana and Khorasan suffered a devastating invasion by Genghis Khan. During this period more than half of Persia's population were killed[32], turning the streets of Persian cities like Neishabur into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".[33] In a letter to King Louis IX of France, Holaku, one of the Genghis Khan's grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Persia and the Caliphate.[34] He was followed by yet another conqueror, Tamerlane, who established his capital in Samarkand.    The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as Neishabur from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the twentieth century, eight centuries later.[35] But both Holaku, Timur and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, chosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.      The birth of modern Iran: Rise of the Safavid Empire (1501 – 1920)    Shah Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty (1501 to 1736).  Naghsh-i Jahan Square was one of the many monuments built in the Safavid era. It was the largest city square in the world at the time of it's construction.Main articles: Safavid Empire, Qajar dynasty, Afsharid dynasty, and Zand dynasty  Persia's first encompassing Shi'a Islamic state was established under the Safavid dynasty in 1501 by Shah Ismail I. The Safavid dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of "Shah Abbas The Great"[36]. The Shah swiftly moved to defeat the Uzbeks, Ottomans, and Portuguese, bringing a flow of prosperity into Iranian cities.      The capable Qajar chancellor Amir Kabir established Iran's first modern college system, among other modernizing reforms.The Safavids moved their capital from Tabriz to Qazvin and then to Isfahan where their patronage for the arts propelled Persia into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even a distinct style of architecture developed.    The defeat of Shah Sultan Hossein by Afghan rebels marked the start of the downfall of the Safavid era in 1722. one year after the last Safavid monarch lost his throne in 1735, Nader Shah successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the Afsharid dynasty. He then staged an incursion into India in 1738 securing the Peacock throne, Koh-i-Noor, and Darya-ye Noor among other royal treasures. His rule did not last long however, and was assassinated in 1747.    The Mashad based Afshar dynasty was succeeded by the Zand dynasty in 1750, founded by Karim Khan, who established his capital at Shiraz. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity. The dynasty however did not last more than three generations, and Aga Muhammad Khan supported by the betrayal of the young Zand king's chancellor, executed him, and founded his new capital in Tehran, marking the dawn of the Qajar dynasty in 1794. His successors however gradually transformed Iran into an arena for the rising colonial powers of Imperial Russia and the British Empire, which wielded great political influence in Tehran under the subsequent Qajarid kings. Yet in spite of The Great Game, Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighboring states in the region.    Persia suffered several wars with Imperial Russia during the Qajar era, resulting in Persia losing almost half of its territories to Imperial Russia and the British Empire via the treaties of Gulistan, Turkmenchay, and Akhal. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to various potests, which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in Persia's constitutional revoltuion establishing the nation's first parliament in 1906, within a constitutional monarchy.      From the Pahlavi era to the Iranian Revolution (1921 – 1979)    Dr. Mohammad Mossadegh, former Iranian prime minister, was overthrown in a CIA-backed coup in 1953.Main articles: Pahlavi dynasty and Iranian Constitutional Revolution  With the rise of modernization and encroachment of stronger Western powers in the late nineteenth century came the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905-1911. Reformers hoped the constitution would strengthen Iran against Imperial Russia and Britain by centralizing and modernizing it. Ultimately the constitution became law, but its provisions were seldom followed during most of its history.    In 1921, Cossack army officer Reza Khan (known as Reza Shah after assuming the throne) staged a coup against the weakened Qajar dynasty. An autocrat and supporter of modernization, Reza Shah initiated the development of modern industry, railroads, and establishment of a national education system. Reza Shah sought to balance the influence of Russia and Britain by seeking out assistance and technology from European powers traditionally not involved in Iranian affairs, but when World War II started his closeness to Germany alarmed allied powers Russia and Britain, Germany's enemies.    In summer of 1941 Britain and the USSR invaded Iran to prevent Iran from allying with the Axis powers. The Allies occupied Iran, securing a supply line to Russia, Iran's petroleum infrastructure, and forced the Shah to abdicate in favor of his son, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. In 1951, a nationalist politician, Dr. Mohammed Mossadegh rose to prominence in Iran and was elected Prime Minister. As Prime Minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran by nationalizing the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company (later British Petroleum, BP) which controlled the country's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and began plotting to depose Mossadegh. Members of the British Intelligence Service invited the United States to join them, convincing U.S. President Eisenhower that Mossadegh was reliant on the Tudeh (Communist) Party to stay in power. In 1953, President Eisenhower authorized Operation Ajax, and the CIA took the lead in overthrowing Mossadegh and supporting a U.S.-friendly monarch; and for which the U.S. Government apologized in 2000.[37]      Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, overthrown in the 1979 Iranian revolution, with Farah Pahlavi, former Empress of Iran.The CIA faced many setbacks, but the covert operation soon went into full swing, conducted from the U.S. Embassy in Tehran under the leadership of Kermit Roosevelt, Jr. Iranians were hired to protest Mossadegh and fight pro-Mossadegh demonstrators. Anti- and pro-monarchy protestors violently clashed in the streets, leaving almost three hundred dead. The operation was successful in triggering a coup, and within days, pro-Shah tanks stormed the capital and bombarded the Prime Minister's residence. Mossadegh surrendered, and was arrested on 19 August 1953. He was tried for treason, and sentenced to three years in prison.    Mohammad Reza Pahlavi returned to power greatly strengthened and his rule became increasingly autocratic in the following years. With strong support from the U.S. and U.K., the Shah further modernized Iranian industry, but simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, SAVAK. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini became an active critic of the Shah's White Revolution and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General Hassan Pakravan. Khomeini was sent first to Turkey, then to Iraq and finally to France. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.      Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War (1979 – 1988)  Main articles: Iranian Revolution and Iran-Iraq War  Starting in late 1977, protests began to build against the Shah and his autocratic, secular, pro-Western policies. By December 1978 millions of Iranians were in the streets and the country's economy was paralyzed. The Shah left the country in mid-January 1979 and two weeks later the Revolution's pre-eminent leader, Ayatollah Khomeini returned from exile to tumultuous, adoring crowds. The final collapse of the Shah's government came on February 11 when royal troops were defeated by guerillas and rebel troops in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on April 1 after Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum declaring the country so.    The 1979 revolution was populist, nationalist and most of all Shia Islamist. Many different groups participated, including the Communist Tudeh Party and the secular nationalist National Front, but in the end it was Khomeini and his supporters who dominated and saw through the creation of a unique Islamic state with sharia, or conservative Islamic laws, and clerical rule. Iran's new theocratic constitution included the post of Supreme Leader for Khomeini and his successors, and other bodies of clerics to veto new laws and vet candidates for public office.    Iran's relations with the United States became deeply antagonistic following the revolution. on November 4, 1979, Iranian students seized US embassy personnel labeling the embassy a "den of spies"[38] and accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to Mohammad Mossadegh in 1953. Khomeini supported the embassy takeover.[citation needed]. Women, African Americans and one hostage diagnosed with multiple sclerosis were soon released, the remaining 52 were held for 444 days. The students demanded the handover of the shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the U.S. administration to negotiate or rescue were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the Algiers declaration was agreed upon. The U.S. promised (among other things) in the accord to release Iranian assets that had been frozen, but as of 2007 those assets still remain frozen.      Ayatollah Ruhollah Musavi Khomeini, leader of the Islamic revolution and founder of the Islamic Republic of Iran  Donald Rumsfeld meeting Saddam Hussein on 19 December - 20 December 1983. Rumsfeld visited again on 24 March 1984; the same day the UN released a report that Iraq had used mustard gas and tabun nerve agent against Iranian troops.Meanwhile, Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution, and with the Shah ousted, Hussein had ambitions to position himself as the new strong man of the Middle East. He also sought to expand Iraq's access to the Persian Gulf by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was Khuzestan which not only boasted a substantial Arab population, but rich oil fields as well. on the unilateral behalf of the United Arab Emirates, the islands of Abu Musa and the Greater and Lesser Tunbs became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. on September 22, 1980 the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the Iran-Iraq War. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.    Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations.    Tens of thousands of Iranian civilians and military personnel were killed when Iraq used chemical weapons in its warfare. Iraq was financially backed by Egypt, the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, the Soviet Union and the Warsaw Pact states, the United States (beginning in 1983), France, the United Kingdom, Germany, Brazil, and the People's Republic of China (which also sold weapons to Iran). All of these countries provided intelligence, agents for chemical weapons as well as other forms of military assistance to Saddam Hussein. Iran's principal allies during the war were Syria, Libya, and North Korea.    With more than 100,000 Iranian victims[39] of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war, Iran is the world's second-most afflicted country by weapons of mass destruction— second only to Japan. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian human wave attacks, while unanimously announcing that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.[40][41][42][43]    See also: Iran 1989-Present    Government and politics  Main articles: Politics and Government of Iran, Foreign relations of Iran, Supreme Leader of Iran, President of Iran, Majlis of Iran, Council of Guardians, Expediency Discernment Council, Judicial system of Iran, Assembly of Experts, and City and Village Councils of Iran    Political institutions of Iran.The political system of the Islamic Republic is based on the 1979 Constitution called the "Qanun-e Asasi" ("Fundamental Law"). The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The Supreme Leader of Iran is responsible for delineation and supervision of "the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran". The Supreme Leader is Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war. The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the Council of Guardians are appointed by the Supreme Leader. The Assembly of Experts elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.[44] The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.    After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the President of Iran as the highest state authority. The President is elected by universal suffrage for a term of four years. Presidential candidates must be approved by the Council of Guardians prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution. The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters. The President appoints and supervises the Council of Ministers, coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature. Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty-one ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature. Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, was elected in a run-off poll in the 2005 presidential elections. His term expires in 2009.      Ali Khamenei, Supreme Leader of Iran.The current legislature of Iran is a unicameral body. Before the Islamic Revolution, the legislature was bicameral, but the upper house was removed under the new constitution. The Majles-e Shura-ye Eslami (Islamic Consultative Assembly) comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms. The Majlis drafts legislation, ratifies international treaties, and approves the national budget. All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the Council of Guardians. The Council of Guardians comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the Parliament from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the Judiciary. The Council interprets the constitution and may veto Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or Sharia (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision. In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates.    The Expediency Council has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.    The Supreme Leader appoints the head of Iran's Judiciary, who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor. There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against national security. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed. The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by clerics, although it has also taken on cases involving lay people. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.      Parliament (Majlis) of Iran.The Assembly of Experts, which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the Council of Guardians determines candidates' eligibility. The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time. As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.    Finally, local city councils are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.    Iran's foreign relations are based on two strateic principles of eliminating outside influences in the region, and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and non-aligned countries. As a military power that perceivingly threatens it in the Persian Gulf, Iran does not hold any open official diplomatic ties with the United States. Other than the state of Israel, which Iran does not officially recognize, Iran holds diplomatic relations with almost every other member of the United Nations.      Provinces  Main article: Provinces of Iran  Iran is divided into 30 provinces (ostānhā, singular ostān), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (shahrestānhā, singular shahrestān), and subdivided into districts (bakhshānhā, singular bakhsh) and sub-districts (dehestānhā, singular dehestān).    The map does not show the southern islands of Hormozgan (#20 listed below):    1. Tehran  2. Qom  3. Markazi  4. Qazvin  5. Gilan  6. Ardabil  7. Zanjan  8. East Azarbaijan  9. West Azarbaijan  10. Kurdistan   11. Hamedan  12. Kermanshah  13. Ilam  14. Lorestan  15. Khuzestan  16. Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari  17. Kohkiluyeh and Buyer Ahmad  18. Bushehr  19. Fars  20. Hormozgan   21. Sistan and Baluchistan  22. Kerman  23. Yazd  24. Esfahan  25. Semnan  26. Mazandaran  27. Golestan  28. North Khorasan  29. Razavi Khorasan  30. South Khorasan        Major cities  Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.[45][46] The United Nations predicts that by 2030 the urban population will form 80% of the overall population.[46] Most of the internal migrants have settled near the cities of Tehran, Isfahan, Ahvaz, and Qom.    Tehran (population: 7,160,094[47] )      After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed to Azadi Tower (Freedom Tower).Tehran is the capital and largest city of Iran with 7,160,094 inhabitants (metropolitan: 14,000,000) and like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution and the city is often covered by smog. It is estimated that about 27 people die each day from pollution-related diseases.[48].    Mashhad (population: 2,463,393)    Mashhad (also spelt Mashad, literally "The place of martyrdom"), is located 850 kilometers (500 miles) east of Tehran, Iran (Persia), and is one of the holiest Shi'a cities in the world. It is the second largest city with a population of 2.8 million.at the center of the province of Razavi Khorasan.    Karaj (population: 1,602,350)    Karaj is located in Tehran province and is situated 20 km west of Tehran, at the foot of Alborz mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan Tehran.    Isfahan (population: 1,600,554)    Isfahan or Eşfahān, located about 340 km south of Tehran, and is the capital of Isfahan Province and Iran's fourth largest city.    The Naghsh-e Jahan Square in Isfahan has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The city also contains a wide variety of Islamic architectural sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century.    Tabriz (population: 1,496,319)    Tabriz is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province. Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of Sahand south of the Eynali mountain.    Shiraz (population: 1,307,552)    Shiraz is the capital of Fārs Province and is located in the foothills of the Zagros Mountains. Shiraz is known as the city of Poetry, Wine and carpet production and flowers (such as Roses).It is also famous for it's importance in the history of Iran. It has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.    Qom (population: 1,081,745)    Qom (also known as Q'um or Kom) lies 97 miles by road south-west of Tehran and is the capital of Qom Province and is built on the banks of the Qom (River) and is considered to be a holy city in Shi`a Islam, as it is the site of the shrine of Fatema Mæ'sume, sister of Imam `Ali ibn Musa Rida (Persian Imam Reza, 789-816 CE). The city is the largest center for Shi'a scholarship in the world, and is a significant destination of pilgrimage.    Ahvaz (population: 832,969)    The city of Ahvaz, is the capital of the Iranian province of Khūzestān. It is built on the banks of the Karun River and is situated in the middle of Khūzestān Province. The city has an average elevation of 20 meters above sea level.      Geography and climate  Main article: Geography of Iran  See also: Agriculture in Iran and Wildlife of Iran  Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world after Libya and before Mongolia; Its area roughly equals the size of the United Kingdom, France, Spain, and Germany combined, one-fifth the size of the United States or slightly larger than the state of Alaska.[49] Its borders are with Azerbaijan (432 km/268 mi) and Armenia (35 km/22 mi) to the northwest; the Caspian Sea to the north; Turkmenistan (992 km/616 mi) to the northeast; Pakistan (909 km/565 mi) and Afghanistan (936 km/582 mi) to the east; Turkey (499 km/310 mi) and Iraq (1,458 km/906 mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000 km² (approximately 636,300 mi² ), of which 1,636,000 km² (approx. 631,663 mi²) is land ( of which approximately ⅔ is desert, ⅓ Mountianous and one twenty-seveth plaines) and 12,000 km² (approx. 4,633 mi²) is water.      Iran is the only country where the Asiatic Cheetah is found today.  Mount Damavand is Iran's highest point.  The landscape of Fars Province.Most of Iran is situated on the Iranian Plateau with the exception of the coast of the Caspian Sea and Khuzestan. Iran is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape is dominated by rugged mountain ranges that separate various basins or plateaus from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the Caucasus, Zagros and Alborz Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, Mount Damavand at 5,604 m (18,386 ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the Hindu Kush. The eastern part consists mostly of desert basins like the saline Dasht-e Kavir, Iran's largest desert, located in the north-central portion of the country, and the Dasht-e Lut, in the east, as well as some salt lakes. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions. Except for some scattered oases, such as Tabas, these deserts are uninhabited.    The only large plains are found along the coast of the Caspian Sea and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the Arvand river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the Strait of Hormuz and the Sea of Oman.    Iran's climate is mostly arid or semiarid, to subtropical along the Caspian coast. on the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and remain humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29°C (84°F). Annual precipitation is 680 mm (27 in) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700 mm (67 in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the Zagros Mountains basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters, sub-freezing average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200 mm (eight in) of rain and have occasional desert. Average summer temperatures exceed 38°C (100°F). The coastal plains of the Persian Gulf and Gulf of Oman in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355 mm (five to fourteen inches).      Economy    The rial is Iran's official currency  Tehran was one of the first cities in Iran which was modernized in the Pahlavi era. It currently hosts 45% of Iran's large industries.  Kish Island is a free-trade zone, which is quickly becoming a major tourist destination.Main article: Economy of Iran  See also: Economic Cooperation Organization and Next Eleven  Iran's economy is a mixture of central planning, state ownership of oil and other large enterprises, village agriculture, and small-scale private trading and service ventures. Its economic infrastructure has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by inflation and unemployment. In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry (mining and manufacturing) and agriculture. About 45 percent of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31 percent came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14 percent in the period 2000-2004. In 2004 the GDP was estimated at $163 billion ($542 billion at PPP), or $2,440 per capita ($8,100 at PPP). Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi developed.    The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many dams throughout the country in recent years, large-scale irrigation schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like dates, flowers, and pistachios, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Although successive years of severe drought in 1998, 1999, 2000 and 2001 have held back output growth substantially, agriculture remains one of the largest employers, accounting for 22% of all jobs according to the 1991 census.    Iran's major commercial partners are China, Germany, South Korea, France, Japan, Russia and Italy. Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is also expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and Central Asia, much like the European Union called ECO. Iran also expects to attract billions of dollars of foreign investment by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones like in Chabahar and Kish Island.    The current administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by investing revenues in areas like automobile manufacturing, aerospace industries, consumer electronics, petrochemicals and nuclear technology. Iran has also developed a biotechnology, nanotechnology, and pharmaceuticals industry. The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian budget deficits have been a chronic problem, in part due to large-scale state subsidies, totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.[50]      Energy  Main article: Energy of Iran  See also: Transport in Iran and Communications in Iran  Iran ranks second in the world in natural gas reserves and third in oil reserves. Nevertheless, in 2005 Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, mainly because of contraband and inefficient domestic use.[51] Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak output of 6 million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry infrastructure was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory wells were drilled in 2005.    In 2005, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were believed to remain untapped. By 2004, the addition of new hydroelectric stations and the streamlining of conventional coal- and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75 percent was based on natural gas, 18 percent on oil, and 7 percent on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first wind-powered and geothermal plants, and the first solar thermal plant was to come online in 2009. Demographic trends and intensified industrialization have caused electric power demand to grow by 8 percent per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants financed by independent power producers, including those with foreign investment backing, and by adding hydroelectric and nuclear power generating capacity. Iran’s first nuclear power plant at Bushehr, built with assistance from Russia, was not online by 2006. In 2005 Iran’s electricity imports were greater than its exports by about 500 million kilowatt-hours; exchanges were made with all neighboring countries except Iraq.[52]      Tourism  See also: Iran travel guide from Wikitravel    The "Gate Of All Nations" at Xerxes's palace, Persepolis.The tourist industry declined dramatically during the war with Iraq in the 1980s but has subsequently revived. The majority of the 300,000 tourist visas granted in 2003 were obtained by Asian Muslims, who presumably intended to visit important pilgrimage sites in Mashhad and Qom. About 1,659,000 foreign tourists visited Iran in 2004; most came from Asian countries, including the republics of Central Asia, while a small share came from the countries of the European Union and North America. Several organized tours from Germany, France, and other European countries come to Iran annually to visit archaeological sites and monuments. The government reported that in 2004 some 4 million tourists, including over 2 million Iranians on vacation, spent nearly US$2 billion in Iran, an increase of 10 percent over 2003. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in infrastructure, communications, regulatory norms, and personnel training.[53]    Iran currently ranks 68th in tourism revenues worldwide. Iran with attractive natural and historical sites is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world. Close to 1.8 percent of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10 percent in the next five years.[54] Iranian hospitality is one of the unique and distinctive features of its people.      Demography    Ethnic diversity of Iran.  Demography of Iran (2002).  Religious distribution in Iran.Main articles: Demography of Iran, Iranian peoples, and Health care in Iran  Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the Persian culture. Persians, the founders of Ancient Persia, constitute the majority of the population. Seventy percent of present-day Iranians are Iranic peoples, native speakers of Indo-European languages who are descended from the Aryan (Indo-Iranians) tribes that began migrating from Central Asia into what is now Iran in the second millennium BC. The majority of the population speaks one of the Iranian languages, in addition to the official language, Persian. The main ethnic groups are Persians (51%), Azeris (24%), Gilaki and Mazandarani (8%), Kurds (7%), Arabs (3%), Baluchi (2%), Lurs (2%), Turkmens (2%), Qashqai, Armenians, Persian Jews, Georgians, Assyrians, Circassians, Tats, Pashtuns and others (1%).[55] Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's birth rate has dropped significantly.[56] Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.[57][58] More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%.[59]    The Iranian diaspora is estimated at over four million people who emigrated to North America, Europe, South America and Australia, mostly after the Iranian revolution in 1979. Iran also hosts one of the largest refugee population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from Afghanistan and Iraq. As recent as October 10, 2006, Iranian officials have been working hand in hand with the UNHCR and Afghan officials to further its official government policy of repatriation.[60]    Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the Shi'a branch of Islam, the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the Sunni branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim religious minorities, including Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Hindus, Yezidis, Yarsanis, Zoroastrians, Jews, and Christians.[55] The latter three minority religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the Majles (Parliament). However the Bahá'í Faith, Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the persecution of Bahá'ís has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.[61][62] Currently the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant human rights violations, despite efforts by human right activists, writers, NGOs and some political parties. Human rights problems include governmental impunity, restricted freedom of speech, gender inequality and in some cases torture.[63].    According to the Iranian Constitution, the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to social security that covers retirement, unemployment, old age, disability, accidents, calamities, health and medical treatment and care services. This is covered by public revenues and income derived from public contributions. The World Health Organization ranks Iran's healthcare system performance as 93rd among the world's nations.[64]      Military    Iranian-made Shafaq strike/trainer fast jet.Main articles: Military of Iran and Iranian defense industry  The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of armed forces: the regular forces Islamic Republic of Iran Army , Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force, Islamic Republic of Iran Navy and the Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops [65]    Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the Basij, which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members, and a further 11 million men and women who could be mobilized[66] This is the largest number of troop mobilization in the world.    Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own tanks, armored personnel carriers, guided missiles, submarines, and a fighter planes.[67] In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as Fajr-3 (MIRV) missile, Hoot, Kowsar, Zelzal, Fateh-110, Shahab-3, and a variety of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs).    The Fajr-3 (MIRV) is currently Iran's most advanced ballistic missile. It is a domestically-developed and produced liquid fuel missile with an unknown range. The IRIS solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring satellites into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, suprising a lower figure than other Persian Gulf nations.[68] Iran's military doctrine is to defend its territorial integrity only. [69]    Also, Iran's military was called the Middle East's most powerful by General John Abizaid chief of United States Central Command (U.S. forces' commander in the region).      Culture    Miniature painting by Mohammad Tajvidi on the cover of the Divan of Hafez ("Hafez's Anthology"), published 1969.  The Cyrus Cylinder was translated into all official U.N. languages in 1971.[70][71]Main article: Culture of Iran  See also: Iranian Cinema and Iranian media  Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the Middle East and Central Asia, with Persian considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium AD, and the language of religion and the populace before that. Nearly all philosophical, scientific, or literary work of the Islamic empires was written in Pahlavi and then translated into Arabic.    The Iranian New Year (Norouz) is celebrated on March 21 from Spain in the west to Kazakhstan in the east. It is celebrated as the first day of spring. Norouz was nominated as one of UNESCO's Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity in 2004.[72]    Iranian customs and traditions often seem complex to the foreigner, but after further study reveal a rich and often intensely warm characteristic. For example, respect for the elderly and hospitality for foreigners, remain highly visible parts of Iranian etiquette, while the highly familial nuclear structure of Iran's society is in stark contrast to many western societies.    The Sassanid era, encompassing the length of the Late Antiquity period, is considered to be one of the most important and influential historical periods in Iran, and had a major impact on the world. Persia influenced Roman civilization considerably during Sassanid times,[73] their cultural influence extending far beyond the empire's territorial borders, reaching as far as Western Europe,[74] Africa,[75] China and India[76] and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.[77] This influence carried forward to the Islamic world. The dynasty's unique and aristocratic culture transformed the Islamic conquest and destruction of Iran into a Persian Renaissance.[78] Most of what later became knows as Islamic learning, including philology, astronomy, literature, history, geography, jurisprudence, philosophy, medicine, architecture, art and the sciences were taken from the Sassanid Persians in to the broader Muslim world.[79][80]    The Cyrus Cylinder remains "the world's oldest human rights declaration",[10][12][81] and women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. These women are the inheritors of a heritage in which women commanded armies, led administrations, ruled empires, ruled kingdoms, supported the arts, became heroes, and even served as deities in ancient beliefs. The state also actively monitors the Internet, which has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of bloggers.[82]      Persian language    Rumi in pensive mood.Persian is an Iranian tongue belonging to the Aryan or Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages. The oldest records in Old Persian date back to the great Persian Empire of the 6th century BC.[83] The known history of the Persian language can be divided into three distinct periods:Old Persian, Parthian and Middle Persian and New Persian.    Old Persian supposedly evolved from Proto-Indo-Iranian on the western wing in the Iranian plateau. The first known written evidence of Persian appears with the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great of the Achaemenid dynasty in 550 BC.    During the Parthian and sassanid empires, the morphology of the language was simplified from the complex conjugation and declension system of Old Persian to the almost completely regularized morphology and rigid syntax of Middle Persian.    The Islamic conquest of Persia marks the beginning of the modern history of Persian language and literature. It is known as the golden era of Persian.The Islamic conquest of Iran commenced a synthesis of the Arabic and Iranian tongues.    By the tenth century, the effects of this diffusion threatened to erase native Persian entirely, as Persian writers, scientists, and scholars elected to write in Arabic (see List of Iranian scientists and scholars), the lingua franca of the day. This prompted Ferdowsi to compose the Shahnameh (Persian: Book of Kings), Iran's national epic, entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language.    “ بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی  عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی  "For thirty years, I endured much pain and strife,  with Persian I gave the Ajam verve and life"   ”    Ferdowsi (935–1020)    Poetry  Main article: Persian literature  See also: music of Iran and Persian miniature    Manuscript depicting Persian poetry written in the sixteenth-century calligraphic style called "shekasteh".Persian poetry is recognized worldwide and have served as an inspiration for writers and poets around the World. Iran's literary tradition is rich and diverse, However only a few names such as Rumi and Omar Khayam have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of Hafez and Saadi are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. Both Hafez and Rumi, for example were practitioners of Sufism, and are quoted by Iranians with the same frequency and weight as the Qur'an.    So strong is the Persian aptitude for versifying everyday ｅxpressions that one can encounter poetry in almost every classical work, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example, almost half of Avicenna's medical writings are known to be versified. Works of the early era of Persian poetry are characterized by strong court patronage, an extravagance of panegyrics, and what is known as سبک فاخر ("exalted in style").    "Love’s nationality is separate from all other religions,  The lover’s religion and nationality is the Beloved (God).  The lover’s cause is separate from all other causes.  Love is the astrolabe of God’s mysteries".--Rumi[84]    همه عالم تن است و ایران دل  نیست گوینده زین قیاس خجل      "Iran is the Heart and all the universe, The Body,  Of this claim, the poet feels no regret or humility." --Nizami    بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند  که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند  چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگار  دگر عضوها را نماند قرار  "Of one Essence is the human race  thus has Creation put the base,  One Limb impacted is sufficient  For all Others to feel the Mace."--Saadi Inscribed on the entrance of United Nations' Hall of Nations      Architecture  Main article: Iranian architecture  The main building types of classical Iranian architecture are the mosque and the palace. Persian architecture display their extraordinary skills in making massive domes. Domes can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. Iranian domes are distinguished for their height, proportion of elements, beauty of form, and roundness of the dome stem. The outer surfaces of the domes are mostly mosaic faced, and create a magical view. The architecture makes use of abundant symbolic geometry. Persians were among the first to use mathematics, geometry, and astronomy in architecture.    Persian (Iranian) architecture left a profound influence on the architecture of old civilizations. Professor Arthur Pope wrote: Architecture in Iran has at least 6,000 years of continuous history, The supreme Iranian art, in the proper meaning of the word, has always been its architecture. The supremacy of architecture applies to both pre-and post-Islamic periods. examples of which can be seen from Syria to north India and Chinese borders, and from Caucasus to Zanzibar."Each of the periods of Elamites, Achaemenids, Parthians, and Sassanids were creators of great architecture that over the ages has spread wide and far to other cultures being adopted.    Iran ranks 7th among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by UNESCO.[85] Fifteen of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites are creations of Iranian architecture and the mausoleum of Maussollos was identified as one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.      Iranian art    Seventeenth-century painting from Hasht-Bahesht palace, Isfahan.Main article: Iranian art  The Iranian Cultural Continent - consiting of the modern nations Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and surrounding regions - is home to one of the richest art heritages in world history and encompasses many disciplines including architecture, painting, weaving, pottery, calligraphy, metalworking and stone masonry. The art of carpet weaving in Iran has its roots in the culture and customs of its people and their instinctive feelings. Weavers mix elegant patterns with a myriad of colors. The Iranian carpet is a re-enactment of the Persian garden: brimming with florae, birds, and beasts.            Cinema  Main article: Cinema of Iran  Iranian cinema has continued to thrive in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. (Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years.) one of the best-known directors is Abbas Kiarostami. The Iranian media is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public.      Cuisine  Main article: Iranian cuisine  The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. Iranian food is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of seasoned rice and an accompanying course, typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently. onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.      Science and technology    An eighteenth-century Persian astrolabe. Throughout the Middle Ages, the natural philosophy and mathematics of the ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. During this period, Persia became a center for the manufacture of scientific instruments, retaining its reputation for quality well into the nineteenth century.  13th century manuscript by Qotbeddin Shirazi, a Persian astronomer. The image depicts an epicyclic planetary model.Main article: Science in Iran  See also: Education in Iran and Higher education in Iran  Science in Iran, as the country itself, has a long history. From the Qanat to the Yakhchal, to the windmill, to the IMOD, Iran has reached scientific achievements and influenced world cultures for thousands of years. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of astronomy, nature, medicine, mathematics, and philosophy. To mention just a few, Persians first invented Algebra and discovered alcohol.    Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by China.[86]    Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, Iranian scientists remain highly productive in several experimental fields as pharmacology, pharmaceutical chemistry, organic chemistry, and polymer chemistry. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the Compact Muon Solenoid, a detector for CERN's Large Hadron Collider due to come online in 2007.    In the biomedical sciences, Iran's Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics is a UNESCO chair in biology,[87] and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully cloned a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the Rouyan research center in Isfahan.[88] Iranian scientists also introduced an herbal drug that may protect those already infected by HIV from the spread of AIDS by strengthening the immune system: "IMOD" was invented by Iranian scientists in 2006, by using nano technology.[89]    The Iranian nuclear program was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a uranium mine, an almost complete commercial nuclear reactor, and uranium processing facilities that include a uranium enrichment plant. The Iranian Space Agency launched its first reconnaissance satellite named Sina-1 in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007,[90] which aimed at improving science and research for university students.[91]      Sports  Main article: Sports in Iran    Azadi Football Stadium, Iran's famous venue for Iranian football (soccer).With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as polo,[92] backgammon,[93] Varzesh-e Pahlavani, and even indigenous modern martial arts styles such as Shinzen Karate [94] and Kan-zen-ryu.[95] Tehran was furthermore the first city in the Middle East to host the Asian Games in 1974.      Dizin skiing resort.Today, the most popular sport in Iran is football (soccer), with national team being a World Cup finalist three times, and having won the Asian Cup on three occasions. However, freestyle Wrestling is traditionally referred to as Iran's national sport.    Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts,[96] with the Tochal resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort (3,730 m at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,[97] and mountain climbing.[98][99][100]    Iran's professional basketball league has hired players and coaches from the United States,[101] irking many officials in Washington for interfering with its sanctions.[102]    Women are primarily active in volleyball and badminton, but even in rallying, female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as Iran's successful female driver Laleh Seddigh.      See also   Iran Portal  Topics related to Iran edit  History Greater Iran, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Iranian languages, Aratti Theory, Aryan, History of Iranian science, Intellectual Movements in Iran, Iranian women's movement, Iranian Peoples, Iranian women, Tajiks, Persia, Islamic Conquest, Kingdoms and Kings, Military History of Iran, Iranian Monarchy, Persian Constitutional Revolution, Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, Operation Ajax, White Revolution, Iranian Revolution, Embassy Siege, Iran Air Flight 655, 1987 massacre of Iranian pilgrims, Chicago's Persian heritage crisis, History of Islamic Republic of Iran  Politics and Government Elections, Constitution, Supreme Leader, President, Judicial system, Assembly of Experts, Parliament, Guardian Council, Expediency Discernment Council, Supreme National Security Council, City and Village Councils, Human Rights in Iran, Officials, Provincial Governors, Reformists, Current international tensions with Iran, Ambassadors, Foreign Relations, Ministry of Intelligence, Military (Army, Air Force, Navy), Health care in Iran  Demographics Languages, Muslims, Bahá'ís, Christians, Armenians, Jews, Ethnic Minorities, Religious Minorities, Zoroastrians in Iran, Persecution of Zoroastrians, Iranian diaspora  Geography Major Cities (List of all cities), (Piranshahr), Iranian Azerbaijan, Iranian Balochistan, Iranian Kurdistan, Iranian Plateau, Mountains, Provinces, Earthquakes in Iran  Economy Central Bank of Iran, Major Iranian Companies, List of Iranian Research Centers, Iran Electronics Industries (IEI), IDRO, National Iranian Oil Company, Automobile Manufacturing, Iran Aviation Industries Organization, The Milad Tower and Complex, Military Exports, Rial, Tehran Stock Exchange, Iran and copyright issues, International Oil Bourse, Bonyad, The Industrial Corridor of Asalouyeh, Kish Island Free Trade Zone, Labor and tax laws in Iran, Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), Mining in Iran, Construction in Iran, Privatization of the Iranian economy  Communications and Transportation Communications in Iran (Telecommunication Company of Iran), Transportation (Islamic Republic of Iran Railways, Airlines, Iran Shipping Lines)  Energy Energy of Iran, Ministry of Petroleum of Iran, Nuclear Program  Environment Environmental issues in Iran, Wildlife of Iran, Agriculture of Iran  Culture and Sport Persian language, Persian names, Architecture (Architects), Art (Modern Art), Cinema, Cuisine, Education (Higher Education, Science, Scientists and Scholars, Universities), Sport in Iran, Football, Greater Iran, Holidays, Iranian National Symbols, Iranian Philosophy, Languages, List of Iranians, Literature, Media (News Agencies (Students' News Agency), Newspapers), Music (Electronic Music Bands, Ey Iran, Heavy Metal, Musiqi-e Assil, Pop, Rap and Hip-Hop, Rock and Alternative), Blogs, Mythology, Persian Gardens, Islam in Iran, Islamization in Iran  Other Iranian calendar, Iranian Crown Jewels, Anti-Iranianism, Iranology, List of Iran-Related Topics, Scouting, Tehrangeles      References  ^ www.ashrafiu.ac.ir...index.aspx  ^ Climate History: Exploring Climate Events and Human Development from the United States National Geophysical Data Center  ^ BBC NEWS - Iran's growing regional influence.  ^ "ER & ER- MAZDESN - ARYAN = IRANIAN". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ a b c d e f g h MacKenzie, David Niel. (1998). "Ērān, Ērānšahr". Encyclopedia Iranica 8. Cosa Mesa: Mazda.  ^ Schmitt, Rüdiger. (1987). "Aryans". Encyclopedia Iranica 2: 684-687. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.  ^ Bailey, Harold Walter. (1987). "Arya". Encyclopedia Iranica 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.  ^ a b Gignoux, Phillipe. (1987). "Anērān". Encyclopedia Iranica 2. New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.  ^ Hamilton, H. C. & W. Falconer (1903). The Geography of Strabo. Literally translated, with notes. London: George Bell & Sons. p. 125. (Geography 15.2)  ^ a b Interview with United Nations Under-Secretary Shashi Tharoor  ^ The First Declaration of Human Rights  ^ a b Cyrus the Great's Cylinder; The World's First Charter of the Human Rights, Suren-Pahlav, Sh.  ^ Oriental Institute, University of Chicago. "Iranian Pottery". Retrieved on 2006-04-29.  ^ Archaeological and Cultural News, CAIS. "Majidzadeh asked Archaeologists to Use the Correct Term of Proto-Iranian". Retrieved on 2007-01-03.  ^ Hooker, Richard (1996). The Persians. Retrieved on 2006-08-20.  ^ Holland, Tom. Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West. 2005. ISBN 0316726648  ^ Lorentz, John H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Asian Historical Dictionaries, No. 16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.44  ^ Daniel, Elton L. The History of Iran. Westport, CT Greenwood Press, 2001. ISBN 9780313307317, p.39  ^ http://www.payvand.com/news/07/mar/1251.html  ^ Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.142-143  ^ Cotterell, Arthur. From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World. 1998. p.272  ^ Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134  ^ Persians: Masters of Empire, 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138  ^ Garthwaite, Gene R., The Persians, p. 2  ^ Arthur Cotterell, From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World. 1998. ISBN 0684855968, p.344-345  ^ Lorentz, John H. Historical Dictionary of Iran. Asian Historical Dictionaries; No.16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.189  ^ Roman mithraism, hadrians.com.  ^ http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/romanempire.html  ^ Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, Tribes, Cities and Social Organization, vol. 4, p305-328  ^ Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p.90  ^ Kühnel E., in Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell, Vol. CVI (1956)  ^ The memoirs of Edward Teller, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory "Science and Technology Review". July/August 1998. Link: [1]  ^ Mackey, S.. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.  ^ Mackey, p. 70  ^ Mackey, S. The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.  ^ http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/abbas.html  ^ http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0004/19/i_ins.00.html  ^ "http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html  ^ Center for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)  ^ http://www.fas.org/news/iran/1997/970205-480132.htm  ^ http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm  ^ http://www.antiwar.com/glantz/?articleid=2804  ^ NTI Chemical profile of Iran  ^ Federal Research Division, Library of Congress. "Iran - The Constitution". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ Payvand. "Iran: Focus on reverse migration". Retrieved on 2006-04-17.  ^ a b Cultural Heritage New Agency. "Tourism and Travel: About Iran". Retrieved on 2006-04-17.  ^ Stefan Helders, World Gazetteer. "Iran: largest cities and towns and statistics of their population". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ bbc.co.uk...060909_mv-pollution-tehran.shtml  ^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html  ^ http://www.payvand.com/news/07/jan/1295.html "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy"  ^ "U.S. targets Iran's vulnerable oil"  ^ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf  ^ http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf  ^ http://www.farsinet.com/travel2iran/  ^ a b World Factbook, CIA. "Iran". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ Asia-Pacific Population Journal, United Nations. "A New Direction in Population Policy and Family Planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ Census Bureau, Government of the U.S.A.. "IDB Summary Demographic Data for Iran". Retrieved on 2006-04-14., predicts 82 million in 2050, underestimating today's population by 8%  ^ Iran News, Payvand.com. "Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP". Retrieved on 2006-10-18.  ^ https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/ir.html#People  ^ United Nations, UNHCR. "Tripartite meeting on returns to Afghanistan". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ International Federation for Human Rights (2003-08-01). Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran. fdih.org. Retrieved on 2007-03-19.  ^ Iran Human Rights Documentation Center (2007). A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran. Iran Human Rights Documentation Center. Retrieved on 2007-03-19.  ^ (English) Traduction du code civil iranien par le cabinet Alavi and Associates  ^ WHO, World Health Organisation. The World Health Report 2000. Retrieved on 2006-10-12.  ^ IISS Military Balance 2006, Routledge for the IISS, London, 2006, p.187  ^ http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iran/basij.htm]  ^ http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,156160,00.html  ^ http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jun/1011.html  ^ Iranian Constitution, Chapter X Foreign Policy  ^ Cyrus the Great Cylinder, CAIS-Online; accessed January 11, 2007. Retrieved on 2007-01-30.  ^ U.N. chief awarded Cyrus cylinder The Iranian.com. Retrieved Januay 12, 2007.  ^ Iran News, Payvand.com. "Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran". Retrieved on 2006-04-14.  ^ J. B. Bury, p.109.  ^ Durant.  ^ Transoxiana 04: Sassanids in Africa  ^ Sarfaraz, pp.329-330.  ^ Iransaga: The art of Sassanids  ^ Durant.  ^ http://www.parstimes.com/history/title.html  ^ http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam16.html  ^ news.bbc.co.uk  ^ technology.guardian.co.uk...0,14024,1377538,00.html  ^ Katzner, Kenneth (2002). The Languages of the World. Routledge, 163. ISBN 0415250048.  ^ The Mysteries of the Universe and Rumi's Discoveries on the Majestic Path of Love  ^ http://www.american.edu/ted/iran-tour.htm  ^ http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm  ^ http://www.ibb.ut.ac.ir/  ^ [2] The first successfully cloned animal in Iran  ^ Islamic Republic of Iran News Agency IRNA  ^ Rocket launch  ^ Iran Says 'Space Rocket' for Research. NewsMax.com, Feb. 26, 2007.  ^ news.bb.co.uk  ^ "Iran's Burnt City Throws up World’s Oldest Backgammon", Persian Journal, December 4, 2004. Retrieved on August 5, 2006.  ^ http://www.shinzenkarate.de/English/Kancho.htm  ^ http://www.kanzenryu.de/  ^ bloomberg.com  ^ http://www.rockclimbing.com/routes/Asia/Iran/  ^ http://www.mountainzone.ir/  ^ http://www.abc-of-mountaineering.com/middle-east/iran/  ^ http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=News&id=2062458  ^ signonsandiego.com...news_lz1n13readthi.html  ^ bbc.co.uk...6059304.stm    Further reading  Benjamin Walker, Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran, Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.  Michael Barker, Catalyst for Iranian Resistance: U.S. “democracy promoters” and regime change in Iran, Znet, 18 December 2006.    External links  Look up Iran in  Wiktionary, the free dictionary.Wikimedia Commons has media related to:  IranWikinews has news related to:  IranWikisource has original text related to this article:  Constitution of Islamic Republic of IranGovernment  Official website of the President of Iran  The blog of the President of Iran  (Persian) Official website of the Council of Guardians of Iran  (Persian) Official website of the Majlis (Legislature) of Iran  Official website of the Judiciary of Iran  Official website of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs  Official website of the Spokesman of the Government of Iran  Official website of the Atomic Energy Organization of Iran  BBC guide to political power structure in Iran  Official website of the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organization  (Persian) Official website of Islamic Republic of Iran Broadcasting  Other  Iran travel guide from Wikitravel  Slideshow: Iran, from Damavand to Ispahan  The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)  Encyclopaedia Britannica's Country Page - "Iran"  Open Directory Project - Iran directory category  BBC News interactive maps detailing Iran's people, land and infrastructure  Uncovering Iran season onBBC Radio 4  Encyclopædia Iranica  WikIran Encyclopedia  Iran travel information and pictures  Iran Cultural Heritage Organization  Iranian news and media  List of Iranian news and media from the Open Directory Project  Yahoo! News Full Coverage Iran Yahoo headline links  Guardian section about Iran  CAIS Archaeological and Cultural News  Geographic locale  v • d • eCountries and territories of the Middle East[show]  Bahrain · Egypt · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Oman · Palestinian territories · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · United Arab Emirates · Yemen    Sometimes included: Afghanistan • Algeria • Libya • Morocco • Pakistan • Tunisia • Morocco    v • d • eCountries of Southwest Asia[show]  Armenia · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Cyprus · Georgia · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Jordan · Kuwait · Lebanon · Oman · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Syria · Turkey · United Arab Emirates · Yemen    v • d • eCountries of Asia[show]  Afghanistan · Armenia · Azerbaijan1 · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Bhutan · Brunei · Cambodia · China, People's Republic of · China, Republic of (Taiwan)2 · Cyprus · Egypt3 · Georgia1 · India · Indonesia4 · Iran · Iraq · Israel · Japan · Jordan · Kazakhstan1 · Korea, Democratic People's Republic of · Korea, Republic of · Kuwait · Kyrgyzstan · Laos · Lebanon · Malaysia · Maldives · Mongolia · Myanmar · Nepal · Oman · Pakistan · Philippines · Qatar · Russia1 · Saudi Arabia · Singapore · Sri Lanka · Syria · Tajikistan · Thailand · Timor-Leste (East Timor)4 · Turkey1 · Turkmenistan · United Arab Emirates · Uzbekistan · Vietnam · Yemen3    For dependent and other territories, see Dependent territory and List of unrecognized countries.    1 Partly or significantly in Europe. 2 The Republic of China (Taiwan) is not officially recognized by the United Nations; see Political status of Taiwan.  3 Partly or significantly in Africa. 4 Partly or wholly reckoned in Oceania.    v • d • eCountries bordering the Caspian Sea[show]   Azerbaijan · Iran · Kazakhstan · Russia · Turkmenistan    v • d • eCountries bordering the Persian Gulf[show]   Bahrain Iran Iraq Kuwait Oman Qatar Saudi Arabia United Arab Emirates    ‹ The template below has been proposed for deletion. See templates for deletion to help reach a consensus on what to do. ›  [show]v • d • eCountries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean  Africa Comoros · Djibouti · Eritrea · Kenya · Madagascar · Mauritius · Mayotte · Mozambique · Seychelles · Somalia · Somaliland · South Africa · Sudan · Tanzania  Asia Bahrain · Bangladesh · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · India · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Kuwait · Malaysia · Maldives · Myanmar · Oman · Pakistan · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Sri Lanka · Thailand · United Arab Emirates · Yemen  Oceania Australia · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands  Islands Bahrain · British Indian Ocean Territory · Christmas Island · Cocos (Keeling) Islands · Madagascar · Maldives · Mauritius · Mayotte · Seychelles · Sri Lanka    International membership  v • d • eDeveloping 8 Countries (D8)[show]  · Bangladesh · Egypt · Indonesia · Iran· Malaysia · Nigeria · Pakistan · Turkey    v • d • eGroup of Fifteen (G15)[show]   Algeria   Argentina   Brazil Chile   Egypt   India Indonesia   Iran   Jamaica Kenya   Malaysia   Mexico Nigeria   Peru   Senegal Sri Lanka   Venezuela   Zimbabwe    [show]v • d • eMember states and observers of the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)  Members Afghanistan · Albania · Algeria · Azerbaijan · Bahrain · Bangladesh · Benin · Burkina Faso · Brunei · Cameroon · Chad · Comoros · Côte d'Ivoire · Djibouti · Egypt · Gabon · Gambia · Guinea · Guinea-Bissau · Guyana · Indonesia · Iran · Iraq · Jordan · Kuwait · Kazakhstan · Kyrgyzstan · Lebanon · Libya · Maldives · Malaysia · Mali · Mauritania · Morocco · Mozambique · Niger · Nigeria · Oman · Pakistan · Palestine · Qatar · Saudi Arabia · Senegal · Sierra Leone · Somalia · Sudan · Suriname · Syria · Tajikistan · Turkey · Tunisia · Togo · Turkmenistan · Uganda · Uzbekistan · United Arab Emirates · Yemen    Observers Countries Bosnia and Herzegovina · Central African Republic · Russia · Thailand · Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus  Muslim communities Moro National Liberation Front  International organizations Economic Cooperation Organization · African Union · League of Arab States · Non-Aligned Movement · United Nations      v • d • eIslamic republics[show]   Afghanistan Iran Mauritania Pakistan    v • d • eIranian-speaking nations and autonomous entities[show]   Afghanistan • China (Taxkorgan)1 • Georgia ( South Ossetia2) • Iran • Iraq ( Kurdistan) • Russia ( North Ossetia-Alania) • Pakistan (North-West Frontier Province and Balochistan)• Tajikistan • Uzbekistan (5 million Tajiks)    (1) Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County, officially recognised minority in the People's Republic of China.  (2) South Ossetia is a self-proclaimed republic within the internationally recognized borders of Georgia. It is presently not recognized by any country.        Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"  Categories: Semi-protected | Articles with unsourced statements since March 2007 | All articles with unsourced statements | Caspian Sea countries | Persian Gulf countries | D8 nations | Islamic republics | Iran | Countries with alcohol prohibition | Persian Gulf states | Near Eastern countries | G15 nations | Constitutional republics | Iranian Plateau

[ 2007-05-01, 16:21 ]